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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Directok 

Water-supply Paper 320 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES 

OF 

SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA 

BY 

O. E. MEINZER and F. C. KELTON 

WITH 

A SECTION ON AGRICULTURE 

BY 

R. H. FORBES 



Prepared in cooperation with th« 
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1913 



/ 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 



m. 



Water- Supply Paper 320 



/jy 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES 

OF 

SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY. ARIZONA 

BY 

O. E. MEINZER and F. C. KELTON 

WITH 

A SECTION ON AGRICULTURE 

BY 

R. H. FORBES 



Prepared in cooperation with the 
Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1913 

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D. OF D, 
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CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Introduction, by O. E. Meinzer 9 

Geographic sketch 9 

Historical sketch II 

Industrial development 15 

Relation of the Indians to water supplies 1G 

Relation of industrial development to water supplies 18 

Purpose and scope of the investigation '. 19 

Physiography and drainage, by 0. E. Meinzer 20 

General features 20 

Mountains . . 21 

Stream-built slopes 23 

Origin 23 

Shape and size 24 

Stream-built divides 25 

Relation of axial watercourses to size of slopes 26 

Relation of alkali flat to size of slopes 26 

Erosion at north end of valley 27 

Erosion in the south basin 28 

Erosion of upper parts of slopes 29 

Erosion of middle and lower parts of slopes 30 

Levees 31 

Buttes 31 

Distribution 31 

Origin 32 

Topographic development 32 

Alkali flats 33 

Lake features 34 

Size and position of ancient lake 34 

Ancient beaches 34 

Ancient lake bed 37 

Features produced by wind 38 

Sand and clay hills 38 

Relation of the sand and clay hills to direction of storm winds 39 

Relation of the sand and clay hills to the alkali flat and ancient lake. 41 

Features produced by springs 42 

Geology, by O. E. Meinzer 44 

Previous work and literature 44 

Pre-Quaternary geology 45 

Formations. * 45 

Pre-Cambrian schist 45 

Paleozoic quartzites and limestones 45 

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks 46 

Igneous rocks 47 

Structure 48 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

Geology, by O. E. Meinzer— Continued. Page. 
Pre-Quaternary geology — Continued. 

Geologic history 49 

Major divisions 49 

Pre-Paleozoic sedimentation, deformation, volcanism, and meta- 

morphism 49 

Pre-Paleozoic erosion 50 

Paleozoic sedimentation 50 

Post-Carboniferous deformation, volcanism, and erosion 51 

Cretaceous sedimentation 51 

Post-Cretaceous deformation, volcanism, and erosion 52 

Quaternary geology 52 

Formations 52 

Principal classes 52 

Stream deposits 52 

Distribution and thickness 52 

Character 53 

Correlation 56 

Buried lake (?) beds 57 

Beds in the north basin 57 

Beds in the San Simon Valley 59 

Beds in the San Bernardino Valley 60 

Beds in the San Pedro Valley 60 

Beds in the Ray quadrangle .• 62 

Correlation 62 

Younger lake deposits 62 

Stratified lake beds 62 

Beach materials 63 

Lagoon deposits 63 

Wind deposits 64 

Deposits made by ground water 65 

Caliche 65 

Alkali 66 

Sulphides 66 

Knoll spring deposits 68 

Lava beds 68 

Gypsum deposits 70 

Geologic history 71 

Early history of the rock trough ." 71 

Epochs of stream work 72 

Lake epochs 74 

Epochs of volcanic activity i 77 

Recent changes 78 

Rainfall, by O. E. Meinzer 78 

Records 78 

Geographic distribution 83 

Seasonal distribution 85 

Fluctuations from year to year 87 

Comparison of 1910 with previous years 89 

Occurrence and level of ground water, by O. E. Meinzer 91 

Methods of investigations 91 

Main body of ground water in the valley 92 

Function of the rock trough 92 

( onditions governing slope of water table 92 



CONTENTS. 5 

Occurrence and level of ground water, by 0. E. Meinzer — Continued. Page. 

Main body of ground water in the valley — Continued. 

Relation of water table to surface 94 

Relation of water table to source of supply 90 

Effect of the buttes on the water table 99 

Relation of water table to disposal of ground water 99 

Variations in the water level 101 

Water above the main body 1 02 

General relations 102 

North end of valley , 105 

Slope adjacent to Chiricahua Mountains 107 

Slope adjacent to Swisshelm Mountains 109 

Slope adjacent to Perilla Mountains . 110 

Slope adjacent to Dragoon Mountains 110 

Slope adjacent to Mule Mountains Ill 

Water in minor rock basins Ill 

Character of basins Ill 

Pinaleno Mountains Ill 

Dos Cabezas Mountains 112 

Chiricahua Mountains 112 

Swisshelm Mountains 113 

Perilla Mountains 113 

Galiuro and Winchester mountains 114 

Little Dragoon Mountains 114 

Dragoon Mountains 114 

Mule Mountains 115 

W T ater prospects 115 

Water in creviced rocks 115 

Tabulated data 116 

Artesian conditions, by O. E. Meinzer 122 

The north basin 122 

Flowing wells 122 

Nonflowing deep wells 123 

The south basin 125 

Flowing wells . 125 

Nonflowing deep wells 126 

High-level flows 127 

Flowing wells in adjacent basins . 127 

San Pedro Valley 127 

San Bernardino Valley. 127 

San Simon Valley. 128 

Prospects in Sulphur Spring Valley 128 

Flows from rock formations 128 

Flows from valley fill 130 

General features 130 

South basin 131 

North basin 132 

Quality of ground waters, by O. E. Meinzer 132 

Substances dissolved in water • 132 

Method of investigation 133 

Amounts of dissolved solids 134 

Total solids 134 

Chlorine 136 

Sulphates. , . 138 



CONTENTS. 

Quality of ground waters, by O. E. Meinzer — Continued. rage. 
Amounts of dissolved solids -Continued. 

Carbonates and bicarbonates 140 

Sudiiiiii and potassium 142 

Calcium and magnesium 142 

Summary 143 

Relation of dissolved solids to derivative rocks 144 

Relation of dissolved solids to the water level 14G 

Relation of dissolved solids to underground circulation 148 

Effects of dissolved solids to use of water 149 

Drinking and culinary use 149 

Toilet a n<l laundry use 151 

Boiler use ]52 

Irrigation use 153 

Analyses 153 

Alkali, by O. E. Meinzer 160 

( Joncentration in soil 160 

Effect on plant life 160 

Methods of investigation . v 162 

Geographic distribution 162 

Distribution of different kinds of alkali 164 

Relation to water table and drainage 165 

Relation to zones of native vegetation 167 

Effect of irrigation water 167 

Leaching alkali out of soil 167 

Contributing alkali to soil 168 

Changing the water level 170 

Conclusions 170 

Soil analyses 171 

Vegetation in relation to water and other geographic controls, by O. E. Meinzer. 182 

Zones of vegetation 182 

Forest zone 182 

Upland grass and brush 182 

Mesquite zone 183 

Sagebrush area 183 

Zone of alkali vegetation 183 

Barren zone . 184 

Geographic controls 184 

Soil 184 

Temperature 185 

Water supply 185 

Summary 187 

Pumping plants, by F. C. Kelton 187 

Distribution 187 

Wells 188 

Pumps and engines 188 

Scope of investigation 188 

Duration 188 

Measurement of fuel 189 

Measurement of lift 189 

Measurement of yield 189 

Descri.p1 iiMi of plants and results of tests 190 



CONTENTS. 7 

Pumping plants, by F. C. Kelton — Continued. rage. 

Conclusions ? 211 

Character .and depth of wells 211 

Yield 211 

Lift 211 

Draw down 211 

Power 212 

Efficiency 212 

Cost * 21 2 

Agriculture, by R. H. Forbes 213 

Early history 213 

Soil 215 

Water 215 

Agricultural methods 217 

Dry farming 217 

Flood-water farming. 219 

Supplementary irrigation with pumped water 220 

Agricultural possibilities 222 

Summary. 224 

Index 225 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Plate I. Map of Sulphur Spring Valley, showing geology and vegetation. In pocket. 
II. Map of Sulphur Spring Valley, showing depth to water, elevation of 
ground-water table, and location of pumping plants, flowing wells, 
and rainfall stations In pocket . 

III. A, Indian mortars, resembling natural potholes; B, Recent erosion in 

Whitewater Draw 16 

IV. A, Butte, showing lack of erosion and of stream-built slope; B, Swiss- 

helm Mountains, showing eroded character of mountains and prom- 
inent stream-built slope; C, Scott Hills, showing rugosity due to 

quartz ledge 32 

V. A, Mounds near margin of barren flat developed by differential wind 
erosion; B, Clumps of saltbush near margin of flat, showing wind 
deposits on northeast sides; C, Barren flat in north basin of Sulphur 

Spring Valley 33 

VI. A, Ancient beach ridge in north basin, showing its influence on 

native vegetation; B, Ancient beach; C, Ancient beach ridge 36 

VII. A, Cross-bedded wind deposits at margin of barren flat, eroded by 
wind and water; B, Typical spring-built knoll at Croton Springs; 

C, Ancient lake sediments 42 

VIII . Columnar section 44 

IX. Sections of the valley fill at Douglas, Ariz 52 

X. A, Stratified beds in valley fill of San Simon Valley; B, Caliche 

exposed by grading road 60 

XL A, Hill of limestone nearly submerged by lava; B, Lava bed resting 

on stream deposits; C, Typical wind-built ridge 68 

XII. A, Mud Spring, showing relation of shallow water to porphyry ledge; 
B, Valley downstream from Dos Cabezos, showing barren aspect 
below quartzite ledge; C, Vicinity of Dos Cabezos, showing evi- 
dences of shallow water above quartzite ledge 112 

XIII. A, Mesquite belt; B, Yucca grove; C, Sagebush on wind-built area.. 182 



8 CONTENTS. 

Page. 
Plate X IV. .1, Hooker's ranch, .showing trees supported by high-level ground 

water; B, Pumping plant No. 20 (H. L. Carnahan's) 186 

XV. A, Portable weir box ready for transportation; B, Portable weir 

box in use 1 88 

Figure 1. Map showing physiographic provinces of Arizona and position of 

Sulphur Spring Valley 10 

2. Profile of stream way in a small canyon in the Mule Mountains and 

on the adjacent alluvial slope 24 

3. Diagrammatic sketch showing erosion of upper slope due to differ- 

ences in the size of canyon 29 

4. Diagrammatic profile showing erosion of upper slope due to down- 

ward cutting of canyons 30 

5. Diagram showing prevailing direction of wind in Sulphur Spring 

Valley 39 

6. Diagram showing direction of storm winds at Phoenix, Ariz 40 

7. Cross section of knoll at Croton Springs 43 

8. Section of artesian well at San Simon, Ariz 59 

9. Section of railroad well at Benson, Ariz 61 

10. Sections of borings on the barren flat 67 

11. Diagram showing annual rainfall 84 

12. Diagram showing relation of rainfall to altitude 86 

13. Diagram showing monthly rainfall 87 

14. Diagram showing daily rainfall in 1910 88 

15. Diagram showing deviations in 1910 from average rainfall 90 

16. Diagram showing deviations in 1911 from average rainfall 90 

17. Diagram showing deviations in 1912 from average rainfall 91 

18. Sections showing westward inclination of water table west of axis 

of Sulphur Spring Valley 98 

19. Section in vicinity of Douglas, showing difference in inclination of 

water table on opposite sides of valley 98 

20. Section on Turkey Creek showing differential fluctuation of water 

table 104 

21. Sections showing relation of high-level water to main body of ground 

water 106 

22. Geologic section showing shallow-water conditions at Dos Cabezos.. 112 



• >. 



Geologic section illustrating shallow-water conditions at head of 



Leslie Canyon 113 

24. Profile across San Simon Valley 128 

25. Ideal section of an artesian basin in stratified rocks ] 29 

26. Section of rocks near Bisbee, Ariz., showing faulting and absence 

of artesian structure 130 

27. Diagrammatic section showing artesian conditions in Sulphur 

Spring Valley 131 

28. Map of Sulphur Spring Valley, showing the approximate amounts, 

in parts per million, of dissolved solids in the ground waters 1 35 

29. Map of Sulphur Spring Valley, showing the approximate amounts, 

in parts per million, of chlorine in the ground waters 137 

30. Map of Sulphur Spring Valley, showing the approximate amounts, 

in parts per million, of the sulphate radicle in the ground waters. 139 

31. Map of Sulphur Spring Valley, showing the approximate amount, 

in parts per million, of the bicarbonate radicle in the ground 
water, and the presence of permanent hardness or "black alkali " . 141 

32. Map showing alkali in soil of north basin, Sulphur Spring Valley... 163 



GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR 
SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



By O. E. Me inzer and F. C. Kelton. 



INTRODUCTION. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
GEOGRAPHIC SKETCH. 

Sulphur Spring Valley lies in southeastern Arizona and is crossed 
by the thirty-second parallel and the one hundred and tenth merid- 
ian. From the international boundary, which is arbitrarily taken 
as its southern limit, it extends north-northwestward for 90 miles. 
Its average width is about 20 miles and its area is fully 1,800 square 
miles. (See fig. 1.) 

The valley is bordered on each side by a chain of mountain ranges. 
The mountains on the west separate it from San Pedro Valley, 
which drains northward into Gila River; the mountains on the east 
separate it from San Simon Valley, which drains northward into 
the Gila, and from San Bernardino Valley, winch drains southward 
into the Yaqui. Nearly 1,000 square miles of the bordering moun- 
tainous areas shed their storm waters into Sulphur Spring Valley. 
Thus the valley and the mountains whose drainage is tributary to 
it comprise an area of about 2,800 square miles. The southern two- 
fifths of this area is tributary to Whitewater Draw, which drains into 
the Yaqui; the northern three-fifths forms a depression with no 
drainage outlet but with a large barren alkali flat in the lowest 
part. North of tins depression is Arivaipa Valley, winch drains 
northwestward into the San Pedro. 

Sulphur Spring Valley ranges in altitude from less than 3,900 
feet where Whitewater Draw crosses the international boundary to 
more than 5,000 feet above sea level on the highest slopes near the 
mountains. Several of the loftiest mountain peaks in the bordering 
ranges rise more than 9,000 feet above the sea. 

The climate is arid or semiarid and most of the rain falls in a few 
heavy storms between the middle of July and the middle of Sep- 



10 



WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



tember. The average temperature at Willcox during a period of 
25 years was 61.7° F. 1 The hottest part of the year is in June and 
July, preceding the rainy season. In the winter the temperature 
seldom falls below 10° F. above zero. The rare, dry, cloudless at- 
mosphere allows the rays of the sun to penetrate to the earth readily 
but also permits the rapid escape of the heat. Hence, in both 
summer ami winter it is warm while the sun shines and cold at night. 



L — .. — -^...,-.. 




Figuke 1.— Map showing physiographic provinces of Arizona and position of Sulphur Spring Valley. 

On the highest mountains, especially the Chiricahua and Pina- 
leno ranges, the rainfall is sufficient to support a growth of tall 
yellow pine, but the low ranges receive so little rain that they carry 
only small timber or are quite bare. In the mountains there are 
many springs the largest of which give rise to small streams, but 
no permanent stream enters the valley. 

i Summary of the diniatological data for the United States, U. S. Weather Bur., 1908, sec. 3, p. 28. 



WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUB SPRING VAT. LEY, ARIZONA. 11 

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

Sulphur Spring Valley, together with the rest of that part of 
Arizona which lies south of the Gila, was acquired from Mexico by 
purchase in 1853. Up to that time and until about 20 years later 
it was occupied almost exclusively by the Chiricahua Indians, who 
were among the most warlike of the Apache tribe * and who, accord- 
ing to some authorities, were the fiercest Indians on the continent. 2 
Consequently this region was avoided by the Spanisli explorers and 
missionaries and later by Mexican and American prospectors and 
settlers. 

In 1846 Gen. Kearny, in making his well-known, military expe- 
dition from New Mexico to the Pacific coast, followed the Gila, and 
therefore went north of Sulphur Spring Valley; but Lieut. Cooke, 
with his "Mormon battalion," took a more southerly course and 
opened a wagon road by way of San Bernardino and Tucson. In 
the next few years the San Bernardino route was followed by nu- 
merous emigrant parties on their way to California. In 1855, two 
important exploring expeditions crossed Sulphur Spring Valley. 
One of these, in charge of William H. Emory, made the Mexican 
boundary survey; the other, in charge of Lieut. John G. Parke, 
made explorations for a transcontinental railroad route near the 
thirty-second parallel. 

The boundary survey party stopped for some days at the springs 
in San Bernardino Valley to make astronomic observations, but after 
leaving the springs hurried westward across Sulphur Spring Valley 
because no watering-place was known in its southern part. 3 Parry, 4 
the geologist of the expedition, gives the following description of 
San Bernardino Valley: 

On the western edge is situated the deserted settlement of San Bernardino. Ad- 
joining this rancho are numerous springs, spreading out into rushy ponds and giving 
issue to a small stream of running water * * *. Signs of previous cultivation 
are limited, this settlement having been engaged principally in stock raising. The 
numerous bodies of wild cattle now running at large over this section of country are 
the remains and offspring of domestic herds, now widely scattered and hunted by 
Indians. 

Parry 4 describes Sulphur Spring Valley along the international 
boundary as follows: 

The descent to the alluvial bed of the Agua Prieta [Whitewater Draw] is over a 
long, tedious slope, the gravelly tableland giving place to extensive tracts of clay 
or loam, supporting a patchy growth of coarse grass. The "Black Water" Valley at 
its lowest depression at this point contains no constant running stream, its course 
being mainly occupied with low saline flats or rain-water pools. Extensive lagoons 
are said to occur in this valley a short distance south of where the road crosses. 

1 Hamilton, Patrick, The resources of Arizona, 1883, p. 235. 

2 Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 1, 1903. (See under "Apache.") 

3 Emory, W. H., Mexican Boundary Survey, vol. 1, 1857, p. 31. 

i Parry, C. C, Mexican Boundary Survey, vol. 1, pt. 2, Geology and paleontology, 1857, p. 17. 



12 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

The railroad expedition crossed the northern part of Sulphur 
Spring Valley and camped at Croton Springs, on the northwest 
margin of the alkali flat. 1 By the members of this expedition the 
name "Playa de las Pimas" was given to the alkali fiat and was used 
in an indefinite sense for the entire Sulphur Spring Valley. In the 
report of the expedition comments are made on the strange aspect 
of the valley, whose topographic development is so strikingly differ- 
ent from that of the humid valleys with which the explorers were 
familiar. Thomas Antisell, the geologist of the expedition, was 
impressed by the springs at the margin of the flat and also by the 
amount of water that accumulated on the flat in wet seasons. He 
expressed the opinion 2 that from these two sources enough water 
could be obtained to operate a railroad, but he evidently had no 
conception of the great quantity of water that underlay the valley. 

About 1859 the Chiricahua Indians held a council of war at 
which were present the two notorious Apache chiefs, Cochise 
and Geronimo. Cochise was the chief of the Chiricahua band and 
Geronimo, then a young man, represented a small band which ranged 
along the Gila north of Sulphur Spring Valley. As a result of this 
council, the Chiricahuas, together with other Apaches, went on the 
warpath. 3 From this time until about 1872 the Apaches made 
innumerable bloody raids, directed against Mexican settlements 
in Sonora and against United States soldiers and civilians wherever 
they were found. Several encounters took place in the vicinity of 
Apache Pass, wiiere Camp Bowie was established about 1862. 4 
Cochise took advantage of a natural fortress formed by the rugged 
crags and peaks of granite and quartzite in the Dragoon Mountains, 
a few miles west of the present village of Pearce; and this rugged 
mountain area, conspicuous from a large part of the valley because 
of its fantastic castellated appearance, is still known as the Cochise 
Stronghold. 

In 1872 Gen. O. O. Howard made a treaty of peace with Cochise, 
as a result of which was established the Chiricahua Reservation which 
included most of Sulphur Spring Valley. The agency was suc- 
cessively at Sulphur Springs, the San Simon Cienega, Pinery Can- 
yon, and Apache Pass. From 1872 to 1874 Gen. George H. Crook 
made vigorous and effective war upon the Indians who were still 
hostile. Cochise, however, remained faithful to the treaty until 
his death in 1874. In 1876 further trouble arose, as a result of 
which the Cliiricahua Indians were removed to the San Carlos Reser- 

1 Explorations and surveys for a railroad from Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, 1858-1856, vol. 
7, 1857. 

2 Idem, pt. 2, p. 148. 

* Barrett, S. M., Cieronimo's story of his life, New York, 1906, p. 47. 

* Bancroft, H. H., History of Arizona and New Mexico, 1889, p. 515. 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 13 

ration, and Sulphur Spring Valley was restored to the public 

domain. 1 

About 1872 Fort Grant was moved to. the west base of the Pina- 
leno Mountains (see PL I), and two ranches with over 10,000 head 
of cattle were established in Sulphur Spring Valley. One of these 
was Hooker's ranch (Sierra Bonita), located at the cienega near the 
north end of the valley. 2 

In 1873 G. K. Gilbert and Oscar Loew, in connection with the 
Wheeler Survey, made a scientific expedition into the northeastern 
part of Sulphur Spring Valley. Gilbert ascended Mount Graham, 
in the Pinaleno Range, from the northeast, and then went to the 
vicinity of Dos Oabezos and Fort Bowie, whence he traveled north- 
eastward across San Simon Valley. Loew reported that "water 
is reached almost everywhere on this plain at a depth of 10 feet," 
and expressed the belief that for this reason certain crops could be 
raised without irrigation. He analyzed two samples of soil, one 
taken in the vicinity of Fort Grant and the other on the alkali flat. 
He spoke with enthusiasm about the good quality of most of the soil 
but recognized the inferiority of that on the alkali flat. He an- 
nounced that "crops will be raised this year for the first time." 3 

After 1876 bands of Apaches frequently escaped from the San 
Carlos Reservation and went forth on bloody raids. In 1883 a band 
of about 250 Indians led by Geronimo left the reservation and made 
a raid into Mexico. According to Geronimo's story, this band went 
through Apache Pass and had an encounter with United States 
soldiers in Sulphur Spring Valley. 3 In 1886 Geronimo and Naiche, 
the son and successor of Cochise, surrendered to Gen. N. O. Miles 
near Skeleton Canyon, about 10 miles north of the Mexican bound- 
ary. With their entire band they were taken to Fort Bowie and soon 
after deported from Arizona, first to Fort Pickens, Fla., and ulti- 
mately to Fort Sill, Okla., where Geronimo died in 1909. 

After 1872, when the Indians came to be at least partly under the 
control of the United States troops, Sulphur Spring Valley became 
attractive as a cattle range and many ranches were established, most 
of which were situated either near the axis of the valley, where 
shallow water was discovered, or near the mountains, where springs 
or shallow wells were located. In the prospecting for water that 
resulted from the establishment of the ranches, the position of the 
ground-water table throughout the valley was approximately deter- 
mined. In 1880 the main fine of the Southern Pacific Railroad was 
built across the northern part of the valley, 4 and the village of Will- 

1 Bancroft, H. H., History of Arizona and New Mexico, 1889, p. 566. 

2 Loew, Oscar, U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3, 1875, pp. 591-593. 

3 Barrett, S. M., Geronimo's story of his life, 1906, p. 134. 
* Bancroft, H. H., op. cit., p. 604. 



14 WATEB RESOURCES OF SULPHUB SPRING 

cox grew to be the supply station for a largo surrounding area. In 
recent years the cattle ranches have tended to become consolidated 
into a few large establishments, among the most important of which 
are Hooker's ranch and the J. IT. ranch in the northern part, the 
lliggs ranches and the Cliiricahua Cattle Co.'s ranch in the central 
part, and the Four Bar and Double Rod ranches in the southern part. 

The first important mining district of the region was at Tombstone, 
situated just west of the Sulphur Spring drainage basin. It enjoyed 
great fame and prosperity in the early eighties. Later this camp 
was eclipsed by the Bisbee district, which has had a steady growth 
up to the present time. Since the early days of Tombstone, pros- 
pecting and mining have also been carried on at Dos Cabezos and at 
Johnson and other parts of the Dragoon and Little Dragoon moun- 
tains. The following statements are abbreviated from Hamilton's 
account l of the early history of Tombstone : 

The discovery of mineral in the vicinity of Tombstone dates from 
1877. When A. E. Shieffelin, a persistent prospector, announced his 
intention of exploring the country beyond the San Pedro, he was 
warned that he would find a tombstone instead of a fortune in 
Cochise's domain. Nothing daunted, he left late in 1877 for the region 
east of the San Pedro and in February, 1878, discovered rich silver 
deposits. In remembrance of the doleful prognostications he named 
the district Tombstone. The report of his rich discoveries spread 
like wildfire.' Thousands of locations were staked out and many 
valuable discoveries made and a city sprang into existence as if by 
magic. 

The following facts in regard to the history of the Bisbee district 
are taken chiefly from an account by Ransome: 2 

The presence of ore in the southern part of the Mule Mountains 
was probably known as early as 1876, but it was not until four years 
later that there was discovered the first of the great bodies of copper 
ore whose subsequent exploitation has caused the steady development 
of the Warren mining district and the growth of the towns of Bisbee 
and Douglas. In 1880 active operations were begun in the Copper 
Queen mine, and in 1881 two furnaces were erected in which wood 
was used for fuel. Benson, on the Southern Pacific Railroad, was at 
first the nearest railway station. Between this point and Bisbee 
supplies and bullion were transported by teams. After the com- 
pletion of the railroad between Benson and Nogales, the Copper 
Queen Co. built a toll road over Mule Pass to the railroad at Fair- 
banks, and in 1884 freight was hauled over this road by 18-mule 
teams. Later a traction engine was used for a short time. In 1887 



1 Hamilton, Patrick, The resources of Arizona, 1883, p. 74. 

8 Ransome, F. L., Geology and ore deposits of the Bisbee quadrangle, Ariz.: Prof. Paper U. S. Geol. 
Survey No. 21, 1904, pp. 13-15. 



INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 15 

grading was begun for a railroad to connect Bisbee with the Southern 
Pacific system at Fairbanks. The El Paso & South western Railroad 
east from Bisbee was completed in 1902. As soon as it was built 
Douglas sprang into existence, and, owing to the location of the large 
smelters at this point, it grew within a few years to be one of the largest 
and most enterprising cities of Arizona. 

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 

As nearly as can be estimated from the 1910 census returns, the 
drainage basin of Sulphur Spring Valley contains about 29,000 
inhabitants. Of tins number somewhat over 15,000 live in mining 
towns in the mountains and nearly 14,000 live in the valley itself. 
Of the mountain population, over 13,000 reside in the Bisbee mining 
district and the rest chiefly in Courtland, Gleeson, Dos Cabezos, and 
Johnson. Of the valley population, 6,437 live in Douglas and the 
rest in Willcox, Pearce, and Cochise, and on the ranches and farms 
throughout the valley. From 1900 to 1910 the population of Cochise 
County increased 274 per cent, which is a higher rate of increase than 
in any other county in the State. This increase is due primarily to 
mining developments in the vicinity of Bisbee and secondarily to 
agricultural developments in Sulphur Spring Valley. The percentage 
of increase was no doubt even greater in Sulphur Spring Valley than 
in Cochise County as a whole. 

Two main lines of railroad have been built through the valley — the 
Southern Pacific, which crosses the northern part, and the El Paso 
& Southwestern, which crosses the southern part. A branch of 
the Southern Pacific known as the Arizona Eastern extends from 
Cochise to Pearce and thence to Kelton Junction and Gleeson, and 
a hue from Kelton Junction to Bisbee has been partly built. Another 
branch road, not now in operation, extends from Dragoon station to 
Johnson. A branch of the El Paso & Southwestern extends from 
Douglas to Kelton Junction and Courtland, and another extends 
from Douglas into Sonora (PI. I). Altogether the drainage basin of 
Sulphur Spring Valley contains about 170 miles of railroad. 

By far the most important industry in this region is the mining 
and smelting of copper ore. In 1908 the value of the copper, gold, 
silver, and lead produced within the drainage basin of Sulphur 
Spring Valley was $17,831,000, of winch $17,495,000 worth was 
produced in the Bisbee district. In 1911 the Bisbee district fur- 
nished over 130,000,000 pounds of copper, which was about 43 per cent 
of the copper produced in Arizona and nearly one-eighth of the 
total production of this metal in the United States. This district ranks 
at present as one of the largest copper camps in the world, being 
exceeded in the United States only by Butte and Lake Superior. 
Nearly all the ore mined at Bisbee is smelted at Douglas. According 



16 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

to the 1910 census, the combined population of the Bisbee district, 
where the ore is mined, and the city of Douglas, where the smelters 
are located, was nearly 20,000. 

Within the valley itself the principal industry has been the raising 
of cattle. A good growth of grass in most parts of the valley has 
been specially favorable for the development of this industry, whereas 
the arid climate and the supposed absence of water for irrigation has, 
until recently, made the region unattractive to agriculturists and 
caused it to be left uncontested to the cattlemen. In the 40 years 
since cattle were first brought to the valley the ranches, with their 
distinctive mode of life, have become well established and the cattle 
industry has attained large importance. 

Until recently agriculture has been practically confined to a few 
fields supplied either by irrigation or natural subirrigation from the 
principal canyons in the Pinaleno and Chiricahua mountains. In 
the last few years the valley has received a great and sudden influx 
of homeseekers who are seriously attempting agriculture, but up 
to the present time the total value of the agricultural products has 
been very small. (See PL II in pocket.) 

The large mining population within this basin has created a market 
for agricultural and dairy products, and this will assist greatly in 
the development of the valley. Thus far the local demand for these 
products is only in very small part supplied from local sources. 

RELATION OF THE INDIANS TO WATER SUPPLIES. 

Indian relics, such as mortars, pestles, metates, 1 polished stones 
used in grinding on the metates, and flint chips, are found in dif- 
ferent parts of Sulphur Spring Valley, particularly in the vicinity 
of Sulphur Springs, on the ancient beach ridge west of the alkali 
flat, and on the sand hills northeast of the flat. At the top of a 
butte about 50 feet high, situated only a few rods east of Sulphur 
Springs, 23 conical holes have been excavated in the porphyry of 
which the butte is composed, and other holes of the same kind are 
found on the sides of this butte. They range from a few inches to a 
foot or more in depth, and are generally deep in comparison with 
their diameter. They were apparently made by the Indians and used 
as mortars. Only one pestle was seen near the butte, but it is not 
surprising that most of the pestles should before this time have been 
carried away as relics. A view of several of the mortars is given in 
Plate III, A, to show their resemblance to potholes formed in hard 
rocks by eddies of running water. This locality was obviously a 
desirable place of abode, because the butte afforded a point of vantage 
from which the surrounding plain could be overlooked and because 



i A metate is a flat, oblong stone on which grain or seeds are reduced to meal by rubbing under a smaller 
stone. It serves the same purpose as a mortar. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEV 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 320 PLATE III 




A. INDIAN MORTARS, RESEMBLING NATURAL POTHOLES. 











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£. RECENT EROSION IN WHITEWATER DRAW. 



RELATION OF THE INDIANS TO WATEB SUPPLIES. 17 

the springs furnished a water supply. Similar mortars are found in 
the Three Sister Buttes, 1J miles east of the springs. 

West of the alkali flat and north of Cochise the ancient beach 
described on page 36 is unusually prominent, and from it the valley 
to the east can be overlooked. A few stone implements were found 
on this beach at a spring a little over a mile from Croton Springs. 
Evidently this location was attractive for the same reasons as the 
butte at Sulphur Springs. 

In sees. 14 and 23, T. 14 S., R. 25 E., 1 J to 2 miles from the northeast- 
ern margin of the barren flat, is a chain of sand hills about 50 feet high, 
from winch a good view of the surrounding portion of the valle}^ 
can be obtained. The stage road from Willcox to Dos Cabezos 
passes through the gap that separates the southernmost of these 
hills from the rest. On the tops of these hills were found a great 
number of stone relics consisting of large metates, small stones 
with polished surfaces evidently used for grinding on the metates, 
one broken but carefully rounded cylindrical implement suggesting 
a pestle, a wedge-shaped stone about 15 inches long planted deep 
in the ground at a small angle with the vertical, and numerous 
angular flint chips such as might have been produced in making 
arrowheads or spearheads. The implements and fragments are 
grouped to some extent on bare patches of ground, commonly sur- 
rounding a large metate. The implements have become partly 
covered with a white calcareous coating. All the stones must have 
been brought from some distance, for on the sand hills stones do not 
naturally occur at the surface. 

There is no spring in the vicinity of these sand hills, but on the 
plain immediately west of them ground water occurs at a depth of 
12 feet. On E. Brumett's farm, 2\ miles southwest of the southern- 
most lull, the ground water comes practically to the surface, and the 
oldest settlers report that there was once a seep where the artesian 
well on this farm is now located. 

The large number of mortars and metates found in the interior 
of Sulphur Spring Valley indicates that considerable grinding was at 
one time done there. They may have been used to some extent for 
grinding the seeds of native plants, such as yucca or mesquite, but it 
is not probable that so many large mortars would have been required 
for this purpose. Corn could have been raised near the mountains, 
where small irrigation supplies are available, and could have been 
transported to the interior of the valley to be ground, but it seems 
more probable that it was raised nearer the mortars. No positive 
information is at hand as to whether at any time before the advent 
of the white men fields were cultivated or irrigation practiced in the 
interior shallow-water belt of the valley. 
82209°— wsp 320—13 2 



18 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

The Apache Indians depended chiefly on game for their subsistence, 
although they cultivated small fields in a crude manner, raising corn, 
beans, melons, and pumpkins. They are also reported to have made 
meal by grinding the corn in stone mortars or metates. 1 

RELATION OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT TO WATER SUPPLIES. 

In 1855 the Mexican boundary survey party crossed the southern 
part of Sulphur Spring Valley, hurriedly, because there was no 
known watering place along the route followed. In the same year, 
however, the exploring expedition that crossed the northern part 
found water at Croton Springs and at Ewell Spring, where Dos 
Cabczos is now situated. At this time Antisell 2 suggested that Avater 
could be obtained within a mile of Croton Springs by sinking wells, 
but apparently no one had yet suspected that any considerable part 
of the valley was underlain by water-bearing beds. The delay of 17 
years that ensued between the time of these expeditions and that of 
the first settlements was, however, due to the presence of hostile 
Indians rather than to lack of water, for as soon as it became possible 
for white men to live in the region supplies of water sufficient for 
domestic use and ranching were rapidly discovered. As early as 
1873 the report had become current that the valley was generally 
underlain by shallow water. 3 

Nevertheless, the location of the first settlements was determined 
chiefly by the position of known water supplies. Fort Grant was 
established at the base of the Pinaleno Mountains, where water from 
mountain springs could be obtained; M. L. Wood settled in Bonita 
Draw, where the ground was saturated with water from the Pinaleno 
Mountains; H. C. Hooker located his ranch (the Sierra Bonita) at the 
cienega, where water was to be had by digging a few feet; and the 
location of practically all the other old ranches was obviously deter- 
mined by the presence of springs or shallow water. 

Ore deposits occur without relation to present water supplies, and 
hence in the arid regions many mining towns spring into existence in 
localities where water is obtainable only with great difficulty. In 
some of the mining camps of this region there was a dearth of water, 
especially for smelting or concentrating purposes. At least two 
stamp mills were erected in the shallow- water belt of Sulphur Spring 
Valley — one near Cochise and the other near the Soldiers Hole. 

During the years of the greatest prosperity of Tombstone that 
camp was supplied with water from the Huachuca Mountains. Later, 
wheu the mine at Tombstone reached about the 500-foot level, a vast 

i Barrett, S. M., Geronimo's story of his life. 1906, pp. 20, 22. 

2 Antisell, Thomas, Explorations and surveys for a railroad from the Mississippi River to Pacific Ocean, 
1853-1856, vol. 7, pt. 2. 1857, p. 148. 

3 Loew. Oscar, U. S. C.eog. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3, 1875, pp. 591-593. 



PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION. 19 

quantity of water was encountered, and heavy pumping had to be 
done in order to operate below the water level. 

At Bisbee small sn pplies of water were obtained from shallow wells 
and from a few springs, but there was so much difficulty in obtaining 
enough water for operating the small smelters in use in the early days 
that pumping from San Pedro River was at one time seriously con- 
sidered. 1 Later the difficulty was settled by erecting smelters at 
Douglas and by pumping the water for general consumption from 
wells at Naco. The deepest workings at Bisbee have found huge 
quantities of mineralized water which must be pumped to the surface. 
The water taken from the Calumet & Arizona mine is led to the 
Warren ranch, on the Espinal Plain, several miles south of Bisbee, 
where it is used for irrigating alfalfa and other crops. 

The ranching development in Sulphur Spring Valley proved the 
existence of water under the valley but did not demonstrate the fact 
that this water occurs in large quantities. The smelters built at 
Douglas created the first demand for really large supplies, and conse- 
quently led to the drilling of deep wells and the application of severe 
pumping tests to these wells. The largest yield developed in these 
wells is obtained from the 296-foot well at the Calumet & Arizona 
smelter, from which, according to a test covering 21 days reported by 
the engineers of the company, an average of 1,106 gallons a minute is 
obtainable by air lift. Large supplies have also been developed at 
Douglas in wells drilled for the Copper Queen smelter, the railroad, 
and the city waterworks. At Willcox the Southern Pacific Co. sunk 
a shallow well, which yields generously. 

The settlers who within the last few years have located in this 
valley have come intending to make a livelihood by cultivating the 
soil. The great value of irrigation water for this purpose has become 
manifest to all who have attempted dry farming. As a result scores 
of pumping plants have been installed, most of which consist of 
centrifugal pumps and gasoline engines and have a capacity of a few 
hundred gallons a minute. 

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION. 

The settlers who come to this valley hoping to make a riving by 
agriculture find themselves confronted by unfamiliar conditions and 
forced to apply methods of irrigation and cultivation in regard to 
which they have had little or no experience. In such a situation it 
is inevitable that costly mistakes will be made and that there will be 
some failures. The settlers are aware of these facts and desire infor- 
mation and advice on the subject that concerns them so vitally. 

1 Ransome, F. L., Geology and ore deposits of the Bisbee quadrangle, Arizona: Prof. Paper U. S. Geol. 
Survey No. 21, 1904, p. 14. 



20 WATEB RESOUKCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Jn view of those conditions the United States Geological Survey 
and the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station undertook a co- 
operative investigation of the ground waters and the possibilities of 
irrigation in this valley. The general field investigation was made 
in the fall of 1910 by O. E. Meinzer, of the Geological Survey; the 
leveling was done and the examination and tests of pumping plants 
were made in the fall of 1910 and the spring of 1911 by F. C. Kelton, 
of the experiment station; 120 samples of water and 106 samples of 
soil were analyzed in the laboratories of the experiment station by 
Dr. W. H. Ross; and numerous tests of water and soil were made in 
the field. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 

By O. E. Meinzeu. 

GENERAL FEATUPvES. 

Arizona may be divided into three physiographic regions 1 — the 
plateau region, in the northeastern part; the mountain region, a belt 
70 to 150 miles wide lying along the southwestern margin of the 
plateau region; and the desert region, which lies still farther south- 
west. (See fig. 1, p. 10.) 

The plateau region, which forms a part of the Colorado Plateau, 
is underlain by nearly horizontal strata which are dissected to great 
depths in the Grand Canyon of the Colorado and the principal tribu- 
tary canyons. A large part of the plateau is, however, only moder- 
ately undulating and is covered with pine and cedar. 

The mountain region is characterized by a large number of short, 
nearly parallel ranges separated by broad valleys deeply filled with 
stream and lake deposits. In most of the region the trend of the 
ranges is northwest and southeast, but near the Mexican border it 
is nearly north and south. Both Gilbert and Ransome regard these 
ranges as belonging to the same system as the basin ranges of Nevada 
and Utah and describe them as consisting essentially of tilted blocks, 
presumably brought into their present position by faulting. 

The border between the plateau and mountain regions is to a great 
extent covered with volcanic rocks. 

The desert region is similar to the mountain region in structure, but 
differs from it in having lower ranges, more nearly buried beneath 
stream and lake deposits, and a hotter and more arid climate. 

The area considered in this report lies within the mountain region. 
Most of the ranges have a northwest-southeast trend, but the Chiri- 
cahua, Swisshelm, Pedregosa, and Perilla mountains, in the south- 
eastern part of the area, trend almost due north and south. 

i For a Tiioro, extended description of 1hese physiographic regions, see Ransome, F. L., Bisbee folio (No. 
112), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 1, from which this description is largely taken. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 21 

Sulphur Spring Valley is one of the broad debris-filled valleys that 
lie between parallel ranges or chains of ranges and are so numerous and 
so widely distributed over the arid regions that they must be regarded 
as forming one of the important physiographic types of the United 
States. They are ; however, strictly characteristic of arid and semi- 
arid regions and should not be confused with the stream valleys 
of humid regions, from which they differ radically both in origin and 
form. They consist essentially of broad, gentle slopes built up of 
rock waste washed out from the mountains. Some of these valleys, 
as, for example, the southern part of Sulphur Spring Valley, have 
true stream valleys along their central axes; more typically, however, 
they have no drainage outlets, but, like the northern part of Sulphur 
Spring Valley, contain central playas or alkali flats. For valleys of 
this type that have no drainage outlets the name bolson is frequently 

used. 

MOUNTAINS. 

The trough occupied by Sulphur Spring and Arivaipa valleys is 
bordered by two parallel mountain chains which extend from Gila 
River to Mexico. (See PI. I.) The east chain includes the Pinaleno 
(or Graham) , Dos Cabezas, Chiricahua, Pedregosa, and Perilla moun- 
tains; the west chain includes the Galiuro, Winchester, Little 
Dragoon, Dragoon, and Mule mountains. The east chain is, on the 
whole, larger and higher than the west chain, the two loftiest ranges 
of the region being the Pinaleno and Chiricahua mountains. 

The Pinaleno Mountains stand northeast of the northern part of 
Sulphur Spring Valley and extend northward on the east side of 
Arivaipa Valley. They rise precipitously above Sulphur Spring 
Valley and shed most of their waters northeastward into the Gila. 
The range culminates in a number of conspicuous granite peaks, the 
highest of which is Mount Graham. Several large canyons that 
converge in the vicinity of Fort Grant and Bonita contain good 
springs that give rise to mountain brooks, all of which disappear in 
the dry seasons before they reach the valley. These canyons, how- 
ever, discharge large floods such as have built the huge fan on which 
Fort Grant is located, have saturated the ground in the vicinity of 
Bonita, at the base of this fan, and have formed the broad draw from 
Bonita to Hooker's ranch. The mountains are sufficiently lofty to 
support large timber, which is included within the Crook National 
Forest. South of Stockton Pass the range is much lower and more 
barren. It ends in T. 12 S., in which Sulphur Spring Valley is sepa- 
rated from San Simon Valley by only a low debris-covered divide 
over which the main line of the Southern Pacific Railroad passes. 

South of the railroad pass are the Dos Cabezas Mountains, which 
trend somewhat east of southeast for about 20 miles. Viewed from 
the west, the northern part of this range appears low and barren. 



22 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Farther south, however, it culminates in two precipitous porphyry 
peaks that rise to about 8,000 feet above sea level and form the most 
distinctive landmark of this entire region. The Dos Cabezas peaks 
can be seen and identified from all parts of the valley except the 
southern extremity. The south margin of the range is formed by a 
sharp quartzite ridge, back of which is the shallow-water belt that 
has determined the location of the village of Dos Cabezos. This 
range appears larger when viewed from the east, in which direction 
it sheds most of its waters. South of the range is Apache Pass. 

The Chiricahua Mountains, the largest mountains in this region, 
extend southward from Apache Pass for about 30 miles. In the 
northern portion the range has many ragged peaks, but farther south, 
where it is wider and more massive, it has a remarkably even crest 
line, a considerable part of which is more than 9,000 feet above sea 
le\ r el and nearly 5,000 feet above the level of the valley. The range 
supports a growth of tall yellow pine which is included in the Chirica- 
hua National Forest. Numerous canyons cut both sides of the range. 
Some of these contain small streams that during rainy seasons may 
flow a short distance into the valley. The principal streams on the 
west side are Wash Creek, Fivemile Creek, and Ash Creek. 

The Pedregosa Mountains form a short and rather low range 
extending southward from the Chiricahua Mountains to Silver Creek. 
They lie back of Sulphur Spring Valley and are drained chiefly into 
San Bernardino Valley. 

South of the break in the mountains traversed by the El Paso & 
Southwestern Railroad is a low barren mass known as the Perilla 
Range, which extends to the Mexican line and completes the east 
wall of the valley. It discharges its drainage through a series of 
small dry canyons. Just south of the boundary a huge, red, tower- 
like butte forms a notable landmark. 

The Swisshelm Mountains, culminating in Swisshelm Peak, project 
from the Pedregosa Range north-northwestward into Sulphur 
Spring Valley. Whitewater Draw starts from the angle between the 
Swisshelm and Chiricahua mountains and flows around the north 
end of the former. Most of the canyons in this range are short and 
discharge their storm waters quickly, but Leslie Canyon, near the 
south end, is cut entirely through the range and forms the outlet for a 
large drainage basin to the east. 

The Galiuro Mountains constitute an extensive range, the southern 
part of which lies west of the northern extremity of Sulphur Spring 
Valley. For about 30 miles farther north the range forms the divide 
between Arivaipa and San Pedro valleys, but near its north end it is 
traversed by a canyon through which Arivaipa Creek passes to join 
the San Pedro. The low mountainous area south of the main Galiuro 
Range is known as the Winchester Mountains. The Galiuro and 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 23 

Winchester mountains contain a number of springs but no stream that 
discharges permanently into the valley. The largest canyons, which 
are continued into the valley as "draws/' or "dry runs/' are known 
as High Creek, Oak Creek, Ash Creek, Riley Creek, Oak Grove Creek, 
and Wood Creek. 

The main range of the Dragoon Mountains extends for 25 miles 
south from the Southern Pacific Railroad to and beyond Gleeson. 
For most of this distance it is a rather low range with subdued aspect, 
but in the vicinity of the Cochise Stronghold, northwest of Pearce, 
the granite mass and upturned beds of quartzite and marble have 
been sculptured into forms of exceptional sharpness. The space 
between the Dragoon and Winchester mountains is occupied by a 
number of low, partly disconnected ridges, known as Little Dragoon 
Mountains. 

The Mule Mountains lie between the Dragoon Mountains and the 
Mexican border and form a compact group of ridges and peaks, the 
highest of which is Mount Ballard, with an elevation of 7,400 feet 
above sea level. Like the Dragoon Mountains they contain a num- 
ber of springs but no stream of any consequence. Mule Gulch is the 
principal canyon that discharges into Sulphur Spring Valley. 

STREAM-BUILT SLOPES. 
ORIGIN. 

The surface of Sulphur Spring Valley, like that of bolson valleys 
generally, consists essentially of smooth, gently inclined stream- 
built slopes that descend from the mountains toward the central 
part of the valley. Every one of the bordering ranges is cut by a 
series of canyons through which the flood waters of the mountains 
are discharged into the valley. The streamways of the canyons are 
steep and narrow, and consequently their waters flow swiftly and 
have great power to carry rock waste with them. But when these 
waters emerge into the nearly level valley they lose their swift 
velocity and drop a large part of their load of rock waste. There- 
fore, instead of excavating for themselves definite stream valleys they 
build alluvial slopes, or fans, over which they spread, and by thus 
spreading they decrease their carrying power still more. 

After one of these streams leaves its canyon it loses water by 
seepage into the porous bed of rock waste over which it spreads and 
by evaporation into the dry atmosphere, and receives few new con- 
tributions. As a result it diminishes rapidly in volume and usually 
soon disappears, leaving all of the sediment that it brought from the 
mountains. 

The stream-built slopes are as a rule steepest near the mountains 
from which they are supplied and become gradually more gentle as 
they pass downward toward the center of the valley. This difference 



24 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



in slope is indicated in Plats I (in pocket), which shows the 100-foot 
contour lines crowded closest together near the mountains, and also 
in figure 2, which shows the profile of a small canyon in the Mule 
Mountains and of the stream-built slope extending from this canyon 

to the center of the valley. 



SHAPE AND SIZE. 

The stream-built slopes, or fans, are 
closely adjusted to the canyons to 
which they belong, and any difference 
between two canyons is reflected in 
the shape and size of the correspond- 
ing fans. Short, steep canyons have 
short, steep fans, and their brief, tor- 
rential floods sweep large quantities of 
coarse debris to the mouths of their 
canyons but can not carry it far be- 
yond, both because of its coarseness and 
because of the short distance reached 
by floods of this character. The longer 
canyons, with larger and better-wa- 
tered drainage basins, have more gen- 
tle gradients and generally emerge 
from the mountains at lower levels, 
and their floods, being of greater vol- 
ume and longer duration, advance 
farther into the valley. Consequently 
their fans are larger and more gently 
inclined. Between these two extremes 
there are canyons in great variety, 
each of them tending to develop a 
specific type of fan. In brief, the bed 
of a canyon and the surface of the cor- 
responding stream-built slope form a 
single streamway, the different parts 
of which are in adjustment with each 
other (fig. 2). 

A large range has, generally speak- 
ing, larger canyons than a small range, 
and the stream-built slope which 
borders it is correspondingly larger and 



■s ■« 




o o O o 
G3 "^ C3 lO o to o 
lO <M O t- lO <M O 



5 ±> oTo o o 
W^ 1 irt in> io in 

less precipitous than that which borders a small range. 



Any given 



range, however, has canyons that differ among themselves in size 
and character, and its stream-built slope is therefore not a homo- 
geneous structure but a building together of fans of different sizes 
and shapes. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 25 

The slope that borders the Chiricahua Mountains is four townships 
in width and is very gently inclined. It is directly related to these 
mountains hi size and shape and is in contrast with the relatively 
narrow and steep slopes of all the smaller ranges, especially with those 
adjoining the Dos Cabezas and Little Dragoon ranges. (See PI. I.) 

The next slope hi size within this valley is that which extends out 
from the Pinaleno Mountains. The broad, gently inclined plain east 
of Hookers Draw forms a marked contrast to the abrupt rise from 
this draw T to the Winchester Mountains. 

A similar contrast exists between the short, steep fans developed 
at the mouths of the short, steep canyons of the northern part of the 
Swisshelm Mountains and the extensive but very gently inclined fan 
of Whitewater Draw. The latter stretches from the buttes below the 
Whitehead ranch practically to the Soldiers Hole and extends around 
the base of the smaller fans. 

STREAM-BUILT DIVIDES. 

The trough occupied by Sulphur Spring and Arivaipa valleys is 
crossed by two drainage divides — one in the vicinity of Pearce and 
the other at the head of the Arivaipa, a few miles northwest of the 
Sierra Bonita ranch. (See PL I, in pocket.) Both are formed by 
accumulations of stream deposits, and it is significant that they are 
respectively opposite the two largest ranges that border the trough, 
namely, the Chiricahua and Pinaleno mountains. They appear to be 
formed essentially by the sediments washed out from these mountains, 
though the shape of the rock trough may also have been a factor in 
their development. 

In the vicinity of the Pearce divide there are numerous rocky 
buttes, but these have contributed no important amount of sediment. 
They probably indicate that the average depth to bedrock is not so 
great here as in the open parts of the valley both north and south of 
the divide. Such a buried rock platform may have had an influence 
in determining the elevation to which the debris surface was built by 
the streams, although there is no difficulty in a theory that the general 
contour of this surface is simply the product of the floods poured out 
from the adj acent mountains and is not essentially modified either by 
the buttes or by a buried bedrock surface. Some of the streams of the 
Chiricahua flow north of the divide and others flow south of it, and a 
lew have probably discharged water in both directions. 

The divide northwest of the Sierra Bonita ranch, which is the divide 
between Sulphur Spring and Arivaipa valleys, was once farther 
north than it is at present. The stream-built slopes in Arivaipa 
Valley have been extensively eroded in recent geologic time. If the 
gullies caused by the erosion are, in imagination, filled, the recon- 
structed surface, which represents the original uneroded stream-built 



26 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

surface, is seen to rise for some distance northward from the present 
drainage divide. Moreover, Hookers Draw can be traced to the 
present divide, showing that it once received the drainage from areas 
farther north. The stream deposits accumulated to a higher level in 
this vicinity than in the valley farther south not only because the 
Pinaleno and Galiuro mountains are here larger than the mountains 
to the south, but also because the valley is here more narrow. 

These two divides separate the trough occupied by Sulphur Spring 
and Arivaipa valleys into three drainage basins. The northernmost 
of these basms drains northward into the San Pedro and thence into 
the Gila; the southernmost drains southward into Whitewater 
Draw and thence into the Yaqui ; the central basin, inclosed between 
the two divides, has no outlet, and the ultimate goal of its drainage 
is its large central flat. 

RELATION OF AXIAL WATERCOURSES TO SIZE OF SLOPES. 

The position of the axis of the valley depends on the relative width 
of the opposite slopes, and this, as has been seen, depends on the 
relative size of the opposite mountain ranges. For this reason 
Hookers Draw, which follows the axis of the northern part of the 
valley, is far from the Pinaleno Mountains but relatively near the 
Winchester Mountains. The course of Whitewater Draw is deter- 
mined by similar causes. After rounding the Swisshelm Mountains it 
is carried beyond the center of the valley by the extensive slope which 
it has built. Thence it leads almost due south for several miles, the 
slopes on the two sides being nearly balanced, though perhaps a little 
heavier on the east than on the west. Near the south end of the valley, 
however, where the Mule Mountains develop into a range of consider- 
able size and the opposing Perilla Mountains are small and shed only 
meager amounts of water into the valley, the debris from the west is 
distinctly heavier, and Whitewater Draw is thrown toward the east. 
(See PI. I, in pocket.) 

RELATION OF ALKALI FLAT TO SIZE OF SLOPES. 

The position of the flat which lies in the lowest part of the north 
basin is determined by practically the same causes as the position of 
the axial drawls. If the valley were everywhere of uniform width the 
flat would occur where the mountains and hence the alluvial slopes on 
both sides were smallest; if, on the other hand, the mountains were 
everywhere uniform in size it would occur in the widest part of the 
valley, in the locality most remote from the stream-built slopes. 
But as there are important differences in both the size of the 
mountains and the width of the valley, the actual position of the flat 
is a resultant of the two. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 27 

Thus the flat was crowded away from the northern part of the 
valley, where the large quantities of sediments supplied from the 
lofty Pinaleno Range were poured into a comparatively narrow part 
of the rock trough. Likewise it was crowded away from the Pearce 
divide, where the valley, although wide, was filled with the exception- 
ally large quantities of sediment delivered by theChiricahua Mountains. 
Nor could it occur very near the south end of the Dos Cabezas Range 
or the main Dragoon Range, both of which are large enough to have 
extensive stream-built slopes. Chiefly as a result of these contesting 
influences, the alkali flat was shifted to its present position, where 
the bordering ranges are small and the stream-built slopes do not 
extend far into the valley. 

In this contest, as it were, among the ranges in repelling the alkali 
flat to as great a distance as possible, the Pinaleno Mountains had a 
great advantage over the Chiricahua Mountains in having a much 
narrower part of the valley to fill. The effect of this handicap was to 
move the alkali flat several miles south of the place where it would 
otherwise be situated. (See PL I, hi pocket.) The effect of the wind 
on the position of the flat is discussed on page 148. 

Sevier Lake, in Utah, affords a still more striking illustration of this 
kind of contest among natural agencies, by which the position of the 
lowest depression of a closed basin is determined. The lake, which 
of course occupies the lowest depression, is crowded far from the center 
of the valley because of the preponderance of sediment delivered by 
Sevier River, the only large stream that discharges into the valley. 1 
The position of Great Salt Lake is not in accord with this rule, inasmuch 
as the lake lies near the loftiest mountains, and this fact has led Gil- 
bert 2 to believe that the Great Salt Lake Desert has recently been 
tilted by dias trophic forces. 

EROSION AT NORTH END OF VALLEY. 

The stream-built slopes in Gila Valley have in recent time become 
deeply and extensively eroded, and the erosive process has been car- 
ried up the tributary valleys, 3 including the San Pedro, Arivaipa, and 
San Simon. When the gullies in the Arivaipa had, by erosion at their 
heads, gnawed their way to the original divide between the Arivaipa 
and Sulphur Spring valleys they did not stop growing but attacked 
the smooth southward-sloping surface at the head of Sulphur Spring 
Valley. In this manner the divide was gradually shifted southward, 

i Meinzer, O. E., Ground waters of Juab, Millard, and Iron counties, Utah: Water-Supply Paper U. S. 
Geol. Survey No. 277, 1911, p. 120. 

2 Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville: Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 1, 1890, pp. 384-387. 

3 Gilbert, G. K., U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3, 1875, pp. 540-541. Kansome, F. L., Globe 
folio (No. Ill), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, pp. 5, 6. Lindgren, Waldemar, Clifton folio 
(No. 129), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, pp. 5, 6. 



28 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

aiul Arivaipa Valley was expanded at the expense of Sulphur Spring 
Valley. This piracy on the part of the. Arivaipa is still going on and 
will continue indefinitely unless stopped by some conflicting process. 
First the waters of High Creek will be captured, then the waters of 
Oak Creek, and so on, until, in the distant future but in the normal 
course of geologic events, the gullies of the Arivaipa will extend to 
the alkali flat, when the north basin of Sulphur Spring Valley will no 
longer have an interior drainage but will all be tributary to the 
Arivaipa. 

EROSION IN THE SOUTH BASIN. 

In the soutn basin of Sulphur Spring Valley the small amount of 
head ward erosion is confined almost entirely to the main axis, oc- 
cupied by Whitewater Draw, and in general does not extend to the 
slopes. As compared with the dissection of Arivaipa Valley, it is 
insignificant. 

For 10 or 15 miles above the international boundary, Whitewater 
Draw occupies a definite stream valley, which is a fraction of a mile 
wide and generally less than 25 feet deep. Upstream it gradually 
decreases in depth until it becomes indistinguishable from the rest 
of the plain that constitutes Sulphur Spring Valley. Above the 
Four Bar ranch the axial portion of the valley expands into a sort of 
alkali flat. The stream valley has a flat bottom and a mature aspect 
and does not appear to have been formed very recently. 

Passing through the flood plain of the stream valley is a freshly cut 
stream channel, which in Tps. 22, 23, and 24 S., R. 21 E., has an aver- 
age width of perhaps 60 feet and an average depth of about 10 feet. 
In the fall of 1910 the head of this channel was about at the south line 
of T. 21 S., and according to F. J. Randell, who lives in the NE. j sec. 
32, it was eroded headward fully a quarter of a mile during the rainy 
season of 1910. The entire channel, and especially the part within a 
few miles of the head, has an aspect of extreme youth. (See PL III, B, 
p. 16.) Near its head the level grass meadow which formerly con- 
stituted the valley has become dissected into the fantastic forms 
shown in Plate IV, C (p. 32). According to William Cowan, a pioneer 
ranchman, the entire channel north of the Mexican boundary has 
been cut since 1884. In T. 21 S. and the southern part of T. 20 S. ; 
R. 26 E., there is an interrupted channel which is narrower and in 
most places shallower than the channel just described. In parts 
of its course it taps the ground water; in other parts it is filled with 
impounded water. From a point several miles east of the railroad to 
the southwestern part of T. 20 S., R. 26 E., Whitewater Draw has no 
channel and no definite valley. 

San Bernardino Valley belongs to the same drainage system as the 
southern part of Sulphur Spring Valley, but it is much more exten- 



PHYSIOGRAPHY' AND DRAINAGE. 



29 



sively dissected. Near the international boundary it contains a 
broad, deep, fiat-bottomed stream valley with one distinct terrace 
excavated out of the underlying lava rock. 



EROSION OF UPPER PARTS OF SLOPES. 

Sulphur Spring Valley as a whole is remarkable for the small 
amount of erosion that has taken place on the middle and lower 
parts of its slopes. The dry runs that come down over many of the 
slopes do not occupy even shallow depressions. Sheet floods, fre- 
quently a mile or more in width, are characteristic of the valley and 
are largely the cause of the good growth of native grass that has 
made it so valuable for grazing. 

The upper slopes are, however, generally eroded, the dry runs that 
come from the canyons occupying definite valleys that have been 
carved out of the stream 
deposits. This condition 
is well illustrated in the 
region east of the Circle I 
Hills and on the slope 
bordering the Chiricahua 
Mountains, but it is found 
on nearly all the slopes in 
the valley. It is shown on 
the topographic map (PI. I, 
in pocket) by the irregular 
course of the contour lines 
near the borders of the 
mountains. 

The erosion of the upper parts of the stream-built slopes in Sulphur 
Spring Valley is not due to any rejuvenation resulting from the 
headward erosion of the Arivaipa Valley or of Whitewater Draw. This 
is manifestly true of the north basin, but it is also true of the south 
basin, for the influence of the erosion along the axial draw has not gen- 
erally extended to the upper slopes. The high-level erosion does not, 
however, require any special explanation, but may have resulted in 
two ways from the normal topographic development of the region. 

In the first place, it should be noticed that it is chiefly the stream- 
ways leading from the large canyons that occupy valleys cut into the 
upper slopes. Thus Whitewater Draw, which probably carries more 
water than any other draw, occupies a deep, well-developed stream- 
cut valley for a number of miles below the point where it leaves its 
canyon. As has already been pointed out, the large canyons, with 
their relatively great and long-continued discharge, have been cut 
deeper than the small canyons with meager discharge, and hence 
they emerge from the mountains at lower levels. Consequently the 
floods from the large canyons can keep open an avenue of escape only 




Figure 3.— Diagrammatic sketch showing erosion of upper 
slope due to differences in the size of canyons. 



30 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

by sweeping away the debris piled in their course by the waters dis- 
charged from the small canyons. This relation is illustrated by the 
diagrammatic sketch which forms figure 3. 

In the second place, as the mountains are worn down and the 
canyons are cut deeper all the streams emerge from their rock canyons 
at lower levels and will sink their channels into the upper parts of the 
slopes which they themselves built at an earlier stage. (See fig. 4.) 
Obviously, as long as the basin has no outlet the load of sediment 

A 
B 



F/LLBD 




\ CL 



Figure 4. — Diagrammatic profile showing erosion of upper slope due to downward cut- 
ting of canyons. A -A ', Cross section of mountain; a-a', bottom of canyon and surface 
of stream-built slope extending from mouth of canyon; B-B', cross section of mountain 
at a later stage; b-b', bottom of canyon and surface of slope at a later stage. 

carried by the streams will be deposited farther down the slopes, and 
thus the lower parts of a bolson valley will normally be built up at 
the same time that the upper parts are being eroded. 

EROSION OF MIDDLE AND LOWER PARTS OF SLOPES. 

In addition to the high-level erosion, some freshly cut gullies are 
found descending the middle and lower parts of the slopes. Gullies 
of this type are widely distributed but are not conspicuous in the 
valley as a whole. They were observed in greatest abundance on the 
west side of the south basin, especially in the region west of Soldiers 
Hole. To some extent such gullies owe their existence to the 
partial destruction by grazing of the protective cover of grass or to 
other changes incident to the advent of the wdiite man. To some 
extent they perhaps normally accompany the general aggrading 
process. 

In part their explanation may be as follows: The stream that 
discharges over a stream-built slope changes its course frequently. 
As soon as it has flowed over one part long enough to build it up 
above the adjoining parts it is likely to be diverted along some lower 
path, which it will in its turn build up. Thus it happens that there 
are parts of a stream-built slope which for the time being receive little 
or no debris from the mountains, and these parts are subject to 
erosion just as any other sloping surface upon which rain falls. 

Erosion due to still another cause occurs near the alkali flat, but 
this can best be discussed in a different connection. (See p. 42.) 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 31 

LEVEES. 

Low, regularly formed sandy or gravelly swells or ridges of a 
distinctive type are so characteristic of the surface of the lower slopes 
of this valley that they deserve mention. They were found west of 
the Circle I Hills, between the Four Bar and I X ranches, in the 
vicinity of the experimental dry farm (southwest of McNeal), and in 
many other localities. They- resemble beach ridges in form, but 
differ from them in running down the slopes on which they occur 
instead of running horizontally as beach ridges do. They differ in 
soil value from the heavier loams that border them, and this difference 
is shown in the native vegetation which they support. In many 
places they sustain a growth of yucca or mesquite, although the 
plain on either side may be covered with grass only. 

In origin these ridges are associated with the flood streams. They 
form the banks of streamways which are so wide, so smooth and 
grassy, so nearly at a level with the adjoining plain, and so seldom 
occupied by water that their function as stream channels is obscured. 
Occasionally, however, floods come down these meadows in wide, 
shallow sheets, depositing sediment, especially at their margins, where 
the current is the most sluggish. The ridges under discussion appear 
to be composed of the these marginal deposits. 

BUTTE S. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

Characteristic features of Sulphur Spring Valley are several score 
of rocky buttes, practically all of which are shown on the map (PL I, 
in pocket). A few of the buttes have names that are generally 
recognized, for example, Hookers Butte, Circle I Hills, Scott Hills, 
Pat Hills, Sulphur Springs Butte, Pearce Hill, and Sixmile Hill. A 
few have names that are locally used, but are not generally known; 
for example, the Three Sisters (1J miles east of Sulphur Springs), 
Sulphur Hills (between the West Well and Three Sisters), and Square- 
top Hills (between Ash Creek and the Whitehead ranch). Most 
of the buttes, however, remain without names of any sort. Turkey 
Creek Ridge, Ash Creek Ridge, Whitehead Ridge, Leslie Creek Buttes, 
and Cowans Butte are appropriate names used in this report to desig- 
nate prominent ridges and buttes which have hitherto been nameless. 

These buttes are widely distributed, being found on both sides of 
the valley from the Arivaipa divide to the international boundary. 
In general they are most abundant on the upper slopes within a few 
miles of the mountains, but in the vicinity of Pearce and Sulphur 
Springs they are found in the axial portion of the valley. A great 
archipelago, as it were, of buttes, presenting a large variety in size, 
shape, and grouping, extends northwestward from the north end of the 



32 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Swisshelm Range. What may be regarded as the main chain extends 
from the Swisshelm Mountains to the Three Sisters, nearly in line with 
the main Swisshelm ridge and nearly parallel to the Dragoon Moun- 
tains. It includes Whitehead Ridge, the Squaretop Hills, Ash Creek 
Ridge, Turkey Creek Ridge, the Sulphur Hills, and the Three Sisters. 
This somewhat systematic arrangement is, however, complicated by 
a heterogeneously grouped assemblage of buttes extending westward 
from this chain to the vicinity of Pearce. 

ORIGIN. 

The buttes throughout the valley are conspicuous because of their 
isolation and the striking topographic contrast that they make with 
the smooth plain by which they are surrounded. They form well- 
known landmarks and greatly relieve the monotony of the extensive 
featureless stream-built slopes. They may be regarded as mountain 
peaks which rise from the rock floor of the valley but have become 
nearly submerged by the sediments that were washed out from the 
larger and more lofty mountains on both sides of the valley. 

TOPOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT. 

The "buttes have themselves contributed comparatively small 
amounts of sediment. On approaching a mountain range, even a 
small range such as the Winchester, Little Dragoon, Dos Cabezas, or 
Peri] la, a traveler finds himself ascending perceptibly for some dis- 
tance, and when he reaches the margin of the mountains he is high 
above the central part of the valley. On approaching a butte no such 
ascent is made. The large groups of hills, such as the Circle I Hills and 
the Squaretop Hills, have distinct stream-built slopes, but they are 
tiny in comparison with the stream-built slopes of the mountain 
ranges. The small buttes, such as Sulphur Springs Butte, have still 
smaller debris slopes and project above the valley plain almost as 
abruptly as they would project above a sea of water. The topo- 
graphic map (PL I, in pocket) shows to how slight an extent the 
contours of the valley are deflected by the stream-built slopes of the 
buttes. The difference between the mountains and the buttes in this 
respect is also shown in Plate IV, A and B, in which the Swisshelm 
Mountains with their prominent slope are contrasted with a butte 
which has practically no alluvial slope. 

The buttes are notably less cut by canyons and gullies than the 
mountains. This difference forces itself upon the observer's atten- 
tion especially in the morning and evening, when the shadows are 
cast in such a manner as to show the relief of the rock masses. The 
mountains then appear to be sculptured into intricate and angular 
forms, but the buttes seem smooth and rounded with few irregularities 
sharp enough to cast a shadow. The large groups, such as the Pat, 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 320 PLATE IV 




i 







^. BUTTE SHOWING LACK OF EROSION AND OF STREAM-BUILT SLOPE. 




B. SWISSHELM MOUNTAINS. 
Showing eroded character of mountains and prominent stream-built slope. 




C. SCOTT HILLS. 
Showing rugosity due to quartz ledge. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 320 PLATE V 




A. MOUNDS NEAR MARGIN OF BARREN FLAT. 
Developed by differential wind erosion. 




B. CLUMPS OF SALTBUSH NEAR MARGIN OF FLAT. 
Showing wind deposits on northeast sides. 




C. BARREN FLAT IN NORTH BASIN OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 33 

Sulphur, Squaretop, and Circle I hills, contain some sharp ravines and 
are less regular in form than the small isolated buttes, though even 
the largest lack the angularity of the mountain masses. This differ- 
ence is shown in Plate IV, A and B. It is due simply to the small size 
of the buttes and the consequent fact that they contain no drainage 
basins of sufficient extent to accumulate large enough floods to effect 
much erosion. 

The shape of the buttes is influenced by the character and structure 
of the constituent rocks. The igneous masses have relatively little 
structure and therefore consist largely of conical or dome-shaped 
peaks grouped in irregular manner, as, for example, many of the 
buttes east of Pearce. Some of the topographic forms of the igneous 
buttes have, however, resulted from the structure, as, for example, cer- 
tain escarpments in the Sulphur Hills. The steeply dipping, monocli- 
nal bodies of quartzite and limestone form sharp-crested ridges in 
which the side toward which the beds dip is somewhat less steep than 
the opposite side, where the formations outcrop. The distinctive 
outline of these ridges attracts attention many miles away. Exam- 
ples of this type are the Ash Creek Eidge, which contains upturned 
beds of quartzite, and the buttes near Forrest station, which consist of 
rather soft sedimentary beds capped by a resistant layer of limestone. 

The topographic and structural equivalent of Ash Creek Ridge 
occurs in the conspicuous quartzite and limestone ridge that lies south 
of the village of Dos Cabezos and forms the southern part of the Dos 
Cabezas Range; the equivalent of the buttes near Forrest station 
occurs in the "prominent light-gray cliff which crowns Mural Hill, 
in the Mule Mountains, stretches like a rampart along the face of the 
ridge northeast of Bisbee, and gives scenic distinction to the other- 
wise rather commonplace hills" of this section of the mountains. 1 
The topography of the Scott Hills, situated north of Willcox (Pis. I, 
in pocket ; IV, C) is also an expression of the character and structure 
of the constituent rocks, their rugosity being due to the hard upturned 
ledge of quartz of which they consist. A similar topographic feature 
has resulted from the quartz bed in Pearce Hill. 

ALKALI FLATS. 

The lowest portion of the north basin is occupied by a nearly 
level alkali plain, which, except near its borders, is entirely des- 
titute of vegetation and is wholly featureless. (See PL V, C.) In 
general it is depressed several feet below the surrounding surface, 
from which it is separated by an abrupt slope or low cliff. (See 
PL VII, A, p. 42.) 

i Ransome, F. L., Bisbee folio (No. 112), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 6. 
82209°— wsp 320—13 3 



34 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

The flat is roughly triangular (see PL I, in pocket) and has an 
area of about 51 square miles. It lies about 4 miles south of Will- 
cox and 1} miles east of Cochise, and its northwestern embayment 
is crossed for a distance of 3 miles by the Southern Pacific Railroad. 
In rainy seasons it becomes submerged by a thin layer of water, 
but in dry seasons its surface is hard and dry, although a mirage 
is likely to give the appearance of water at a distance. The agen- 
cies which have controlled the location of this flat are discussed on 
page 26, and the processes which have influenced its topographic 
form are discussed on pages 41-42. 

A smaller, nearly level tract of alkali soil occurs in the south 
basin east of Soldiers Hole, from which it extends northward a short 
distance and southward for more than the width of a township. 
It is, however, not barren of vegetation and not so sharply separated 
from the surrounding area as the north flat. 

LAKE FEATURES. 

SIZE AND POSITION OF ANCIENT LAKE. 

The north basin of Sulphur Spring Valley at one time contained 
a lake that was approximately 20 miles in length and 11 miles in 
maximum width and had a shore line of nearly 50 miles. It cov- 
ered approximately 120 square miles, or 7 per cent of the entire 
drainage basin, and stood approximately 4,180 feet above the 
present sea level, or fully 45 feet above the surface of the 
barren flat. If it were now in existence, its waters would extend 
about 6 miles north of the barren flat and would reach south- 
ward within 6 miles of Pearce. The O. T. ranch, Cochise, and Ser- 
voss would be situated near its west coast, and E. Brume tt's house, 
the Hope ranch, Thomas Allaire's ranch, and Sulphur Springs along 
its east shore. (PI. I, in pocket.) The site of Willcox would be cov- 
ered by a shallow sheet of water and Hado station would be sub- 
merged to a depth of about 30 feet. This ancient lake, which can 
appropriately be called Lake Cochise, received the drainage from the 
surrounding uplands but had no outlet, and it may therefore be 
concluded that its waters were salt. 

ANCIENT BEACHES. 

Along the shore of any lake or other body of standing water the 
waves and shore currents are active in handling the sediments which 
they erode from the banks or which are supplied to them by the in- 
flowing streams. These sediments may be spread along the shore 
to form a beach or may be built into bars, spits, hooks, or other 
shore features. Where the lake bed near the shore slopes very 
gently and the water is consequently shallow, the sediments handled 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 35 

by the waves are likely to be built into a low symmetrical ridge that 
lies some distance from the shore and runs approximately parallel 
to it. The lakeward side of a beach ridge assumes all the character- 
istics and functions of a beach. The belt of shallow water impris- 
oned between the beach ridge and the shore forms a lagoon, which 
in the course of time is filled with sediment and converted into a 
marsh. If the slope of the lake bed near the shore is steep and the 
water deepens rapidly, the waves are more likely to beat on the shore 
with full force and to cut into the mainland, forming cliffs and 
terraces. 

Some bolson valleys have been filled with water to the higher 
levels of the stream-built slopes, and as the higher parts are steeper 
and more extensively dissected than the lower, cliffs, terraces, and 
bars have been formed. An example of this type of bolson is Estan- 
cia Vafley, in New Mexico. 1 

In the basin of Great Salt Lake the water at one time stood a 
thousand feet above the present lake level, and the shore line ex- 
tended along the precipitous slopes of the mountain ranges. The 
great waves of this high-water stage dashed with full force against 
the rocky headlands and cut deeply into the exposed ridges, form- 
ing strikingly conspicuous cliffs and terraces. 2 The ancient Lake 
Cochise, in the north basin of Sulphur Spring Valley, occupied only 
the low central area where the slopes were gentle, and consequently 
the waves and shore currents produced no cliffs nor terraces but 
constructed comparatively large beach ridges. (See PL VI.) 

The eastern coast of the ancient lake, from a point about 5 miles 
southeast of Willcox, in sec. 23, T. 14 S., R. 25 E., to a point a short 
distance beyond Thomas Allaire's ranch, in sec. 28, T. 15 S., R. 25 
E., is outlined by a distinct and continuous beach whose total length 
is about 10 miles and whose course is shown on the map. (PL I, in 
pocket.) At the north end this beach abuts rather abruptly 
against the more recently formed sand hills; southward from 
Allaire's ranch it gradually becomes so indistinct that it can not be 
traced with certainty. 

The west coast, from a point about 2 miles south and 4J miles 
west of Willcox, in the NW. { sec. 16, T. 14 S., R. 24 E., to a point 
about 2 -J miles southeast of Servoss station, in sec. 31, T. 16 S., R. 
25 E., is outlined by an equally distinct and continuous beach, whose 
total length is about 19 miles and whose course is shown on the 
map. It fades out at both ends. 

A third beach extends southwestward from a point near the 
Southern Pacific Railroad, about 3 J miles southwest of Willcox, 

1 Meinzer, 0. E., Geology and water resources of Estancia Valley, N. Hex.: Water-Supply Paper IT. S. 
Geol. Survey No. 275, 1911. 

2 Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville: Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 1, 1890. 



36 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

in sec. 23, T. 14 S., R. 24 E., past J. C. Page's ranch, to the NE. J 
sec. 29 in the same township. In sec. 29 it is interrupted but seems 
to be more or less nearly parallel to the main strand on the west 
side and finally to join that strand near the line between sees. 29 
and 30. (See PI. I, in pocket.) East of the railroad it has appar- 
ently become obscured by wind deposits. Altogether this beach 
has a length of about 4 miles. 

In the three strands outlined the conspicuous feature is the beach 
ridge rather than the inner beach, but in some places the ridge be- 
comes merged with the inner beach. For some distance between 
the Hope ranch and Allaire's ranch there are two nearly concentric 
beaches, some distance apart. The road leading between sees. 14 
and 15 and sees. 22 and 23 crosses one of these beaches just south 
of the corner where all four sections meet and the other one nearly 
half a mile farther north. 

The largest and most prominent shore feature is formed by the 
beach ridge in the vicinity of Cochise, especially south of Croton 
Springs, in sees. 6 and 7, T. 15 S., R. 24 E. (PL VI, B), and south- 
east of Cochise, in sees. 28 and 33 of the same township (PI. VI, (J). 
In the first-mentioned locality the beach ridge is 400 or 500 feet 
wide, fully 15 feet high on the lake side, and perhaps half as high 
on the land side. It consists, in fact, of two parallel ridges sepa- 
rated by a slight sag. Between the beach ridge and the stream- 
built slope lies a crescent-shaped flat, approximately a mile long 
and a quarter of a mile in greatest width. When the lake existed 
the area covered by this flat was occupied by a shallow lagoon that 
lay between the mainland and the outer beach. The filling which 
produced the flat surface was probably deposited for the most part 
while the lake existed, but may to some extent have taken place 
since. In the other locality (sees. 28 and 33), where a specially 
well-developed beach ridge was observed, the low ground back of 
the ridge is drained by a ravine that cuts through the ridge. 

The beaches on both sides of the ancient lake are made more 
conspicuous by their characteristic flora, for they commonly support 
mesquite or yucca, even where they cross a plain that is covered 
with grass only. (See Pis. VI, A; VII, C, p. 42.) 

The influence of the beaches on human development is also inter- 
esting. That prehistoric people were attracted by the view of the 
valley, which the west beach afforded, in a locality convenient to 
water, is suggested by the relics found on the large ridge in sec. 7, 
south of Croton Springs (p. 17). That the white settlers were like- 
wise attracted is shown by the line of ranches and adobe ruins that 
characterize the beaches on both sides. The beach ridge afforded 
an ideal location for the ranch house, and plenty of water for the 
cattle and horses could be obtained just off the ridge at a depth of a 



U- S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 320 PLATE VI 




A. ANCIENT BEACH RIDGE IN NORTH BASIN. 
Showing its influence on native vegetation. 




B. ANCIENT BEACH. 




C. ANCIENT BEACH RIDGE. 



PHYSIOGKAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 37 

few feet. These ridges also afforded almost ideal road grades, and 
before the country was so generally fenced they were followed by 
some of the principal roads in the valley. They are almost per- 
fectly horizontal and are only rarely interrupted by large ravines. 
Moreover, their elevation and gravelly constitution insure a firm 
roadbed even in wet weather. 

The surface of a lake is, of course, level and its shore line is hori- 
zontal throughout. It is therefore to be expected that the beaches 
formed along its shore will all be at the same level, even though they 
are hundreds of miles apart, as may be the case in large lakes. If 
the beaches left by a lake that has dried up are not at the same level 
some special explanation must be sought. For example, in the 
basin of Great Salt Lake there is considerable discordance in the 
levels at which the shore features of the same lake stage occur, and 
this discordance is attributed by Gilbert 1 to a tilting of the region 
since the time when the strands were formed. In Sulphur Spring 
Valley the ancient strand seems to show slight differences in eleva- 
tion in different localities. No theory of violent disturbance would be 
required to ascribe these differences to a slight tilting of the entire 
valley since the time when the lake existed, but they can perhaps be 
adequately explained by assuming that the beach was built a little 
higher above the water level in some localities than in others, or that 
hi different places the beach was formed at different times and at 
somewhat different water levels. 

Of the nearly 50 miles of shore line ascribed to the ancient lake 
scarcely 30 miles is outlined by definite shore features. Along the 
remaining 20 miles of shore line no definitely recognizable features 
were formed, or else these features have been destroyed or obscured 
by the wind. That part of the outline of the ancient lake which 
is not marked by shore features is conjectured from the topography 
of the valley, and this conjectured outline is shown on the map 
(PI. I, in pocket) . At the time of its maximum height the lake prob- 
ably extended far north of the line occupied by the north beach ridge. 

The beach ridges are largest opposite the widest and deepest part 
of the lake, where the waves had the longest sweep and the least 
retardation by friction at the bottom. They disappear toward both 
the north and the south ends, where over large tracts the water was 
very shallow. 

ANCIENT LAKE BED. 

In the central part of a bolson valley that has not been occupied 
by a lake the stream-built slopes from opposite sides approach each 
other with gentle gradients and may flatten out to form a central 
area of only very slight gradient. If, however, the central part of 

i Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville: Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 1, 1890. 



38 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

such a valley is occupied for a long time by a lake it will become 
filled to a certain level with sediments deposited under water, and 
these sediments will be so evenly distributed that the central flat 
will be extended and more nearly leveled. In a general way, the 
south basin of Sulphur Spring Valley illustrates the first-described 
condition and the north basin the second (PI. V, C, p. 33). The 
barren flat in the north basin no doubt owes its flatness largely to 
sedimentation in the ancient lake, although its present surface seems 
to have been developed to some extent by agencies that have oper- 
ated since the lake disappeared. 

FEATURES PRODUCED BY WIND. 

SAND AND CLAY HILLS. 

Over an area of about 32 square miles the topography has been 
molded by the wind. This area (see PI. I, in pocket) lies principally 
northeast of the barren flat but includes two narrow tongues of land, 
one extending along the eastern and the other along the northern 
margin of the flat. The Southern Pacific Railroad passes through 
the north tongue in the vicinity of Ilado station and skirts the mar- 
gin of the main area for 2 or 3 miles northeast of Willcox. The vil- 
lage of Willcox lies immediately west of the main area. 

This wind-built area is characterized by ridges and hills arranged 
in a rather chaotic manner and separated from one another by 
ponds and other undrained depressions. In a region carved into 
hills and valleys by running water the drainage is invariably well 
defined, but in a region such as this the wind has scooped out basins 
and thrown up hills capriciously and in disregard of any drainage 
lines. 

The wind-formed topography is not without a rude system of its 
own, for, as shown on the map, it comprises a series of wind-built 
ridges which are roughly concentric with each other and with the 
margin of the barren flat. The largest of these ridges are several 
miles long and more than 50 feet high. The smaller ridges and 
the irregularly shaped hills are not shown on the map, but a view 
of one of the smaller ridges is given in Plate XI, C (p. 68). In 
some places the depressions between the ridges and hills consist of 
smooth, grassy meadows which merge insensibly with the stream- 
built slopes; in other places they have been scooped out to form 
basins, some of which are filled with water during most of the year. 
The ponds thus produced are valued as watering places for live stock, 
but they are also breeding places for mosquitoes. The wind-formed 
topography is most pronounced about 2 or 3 miles east of Willcox, 
where it assumes a rather weird and fantastic aspect. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 



39 



RELATION OF THE SAND AND CLAY HILLS TO DIRECTION OF STORM 

WINDS. 

The sand and clay hills are found north and east of the barren 
flat, but are virtu ally, absent on its southwest side. The materials 
that compose these hills were derived by the storm winds from the 
flat, or ancient lake bed, and were deposited on the east and north 
sides because in this region most of the storm winds blow from the 
south, southwest, or west. 




-»> £AST 



Figure 5.— Diagram showing prevailing direction of wind in Sulphur Spring Valley (constructed 

from table on p. 40). 

That most of the storm winds come from the southwest is shown 
by records of the United States Weather Bureau and also by topo- 
graphic features such as are shown in PL V, B (p. 33). The first 
table given below is a summary of the prevailing directions of the 
wind during a five-year period at the three observation stations of 
the United States Weather Bureau nearest the alkali flat. This 
table indicates that the wind may come from any direction and that 
during a considerable part of the time it blows from the east, but 
that during fully two-thirds of the time it is prevailingly from the south, 
west, or southwest. This fact is shown graphically in figure 5, in 



40 



WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



which the length of each ar.ro w is proportionate to the number of months 

in which the wind was reported to blow in the direction indicated. 
NORTH The second and third tables give 

the prevailing direction and the di- 
rection of the highest storm wind 
in each month at Phoenix, where 
the velocity as well as the direction 
of the wind is observed. These 
tables show that although at Phoe- 
nix the prevailing direction is east, 
nearly all the storm winds blow 
from westerly directions. (See also 
fig. 6.) It is safe to conclude from 
these data that most of the storm 

winds in the vicinity of the alkali flat in Sulphur Spring Valley 

blow from the south, west, or southwest. 




EAST 



SOUTH 

Figure 6. — Diagram showing direction of storm 
winds at Phoenix, Ariz, (constructed from 
table on p. 41). 



Prevailing direction of wind in vicinity of barren flat and wind-built area of Sulphur 

Spring Valley, 1905-1909. 





Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Year. 


1905. 
Willcox 


S. 

w. 


s. 
w. 


S. 

w. 


s. 
w. 


S. 

w. 


S. 
W. 


S. 

w. 


S. 


S. 
SW. 

w. 

s. 

SE. 
E. 

S. 
SE. 

NE. 

S. 

w. 

E. 

SW. 

NW. 
E. 


S. 

*w."" 

N. 
E. 
SE. 

S. 

SE. 
SW. 

s. 
w. 
w. 

sw. 

NW. 

sw. 


S. 
SW. 

w. 

N. 
SE. 
E. 

SE*.' 

W. 

SW. 

w. 
w. 

s. 
sw. 

sw. 


N. 

S. 

SW. 

s. 
sw. 

E. 

sw. 

W. 

N. 


s. 


Cochise 


w. 






1906. 
Willcox 


N. 
S. 
E. 

S. 
NE. 

sw. 

s. 
sw. 

E. 

sw. 


s. 
w. 

NW. 

s. 

E. 
E. 

S. 
SW. 
E. 

S. 


s. 
w. 

E. 

s. 

SE. 
E. 

S. 

w. 
w. 

s. 


s. 
w. 

NE. 

S. 

SE. 
E. 

S. 

w. 

NW. 
SW. 


s. 
w. 

NE. 

S. 
SE. 
E. 

S. 

w. 

sw. 

s. 


s. 
w. 

NE. 
S. 

w. 

E. 
SW. 

w. 

w. 


S. 
E. 
SW. 

s. 

SE. 
SE. 

SW. 

sw. 

E. 

SW. 


S. 

SE. 

NW. 

S. 
SW. 

NE. 

SW. 

w. 
w. 

S. 


s. 


Cochise 


w. 


Allaire's ranch 

1907. 
Willcox... 


E. 
S. 


Cochise 

Allaire's ranch 

1908. 

Willcox 

Cochise 

Allaire's ranch 

1909. 
Willcox 


SE. 
E. 

S. 

w. 
w. 

sw. 


Cochise 




Allaire's ranch 


sw. 


w. 


sw. 


SW. 






w. 


SE. 


NW. 


w. 











Prevailing direction of winds at Phoenix, Ariz., 1905-1909. 





Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


1905 


















E. 
E. 
E. 
E. 


E. 

E. 
E. 
E. 


E. 
E. 
E. 
E. 


E. 


1906 


E. 
E. 
E. 
E. 


E. 
E. 
E. 
E. 


E. 
E. 

E. 
E. 


E. 
E. 

E. 
E. 


E. 
E. 
E. 
E. 


E. 
E. 
E. 


E. 
E. 
E. 


E. 

E. 
E. 


E. 


1907 


E. 


1908 


E. 


1909 





















PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE . 41 

Direction of highest winds at Phoenix, Ariz., 1905-1909. 





Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dee. 


1905 


















SE. 
NW. 
SW. 
SW. 


SW. 

NW. 
NW. 
SW. 


SW. 
NW. 

E. 

W. 


W. 


1906 


E. 
SW. 
W. 

w. 


SW. 
W. 
W. 
SW. 


W. 
W. 

NW. 
SW. 


SW. 

NW. 

w. 

SW. 


NW. 
SW. 
SW. 
SW. 


W. 
W. 
W. 


SE. 
E. 
S. 


N. 
SE. 

NW. 




1907 


SW. 


1908 


SW. 


1909 





















The relation shown between the dime area and the direction of 
the wind is not peculiar to Sulphur Spring Valley. In San Simon 
Valley sand hills occur along the east side of the axial stream channel, 
which no doubt supplies the wind-blown material. In Estancia, 
Encino, and Tularosa valleys, N. Mex., the wind has excavated 
basins and deposited most of the excavated materials on the east 
and north sides 1 . The largest dunes associated with any lake, 
whether ancient or modern, are commonly found to leeward of the 
prevailing storm winds. 

RELATION OF THE SAND AND CLAY HILLS TO THE ALKALI FLAT AND 

ANCIENT LAKE. 

A part of the wind work was probably done while the lake existed 
and a part since it became dry. The wind is at present eroding the 
east and north banks of the flat (PI. VII, A), but no evidence of wind 
erosion was observed on the flat itself. Deposition by the wind 
may have begun before the advent of the lake, but at no place were 
shore features seen to be superimposed upon wind deposits. 

The principal reason for believing that a part of the wind work 
was done while the lake existed lies in the facts that the dunes con- 
sist chiefly of sand, whereas except very near its margin the barren 
flat is everywhere underlain by clay. The clay w T ashed into the 
lake remained long in suspension and w T as carried far from the shore 
before it settled to the bottom, but the sand w T as deposited near the 
shore and in large part was thrown up by the waves so that the wind 
was able to seize it. 

That much of the wind work was done since the lake epoch is indi- 
cated by the following facts: (1) Many of the dunes lie on the ancient 
lake bed; (2) a considerable part of the material composing the dunes 
consists of clay; (3) the wind is now at work; and (4) the barren flat 
lies at a lower level than would be expected if it were merely the bed 

i Meinzer, O. E., Geology and water resources of Estancia Valley, N. Mex.: Water-Supply Paper U. S. 
Geol. Survey No. 275, 1911, p. 25. 



42 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

of the ancient lake. The last-mentioned fact requires further 
consideration. 

The barren flat appears to the eye to be perfectly level except for 
sun cracks and alkali protuberances, which produce irregularities of 
only a few inches at most. At the margin of the flat the surface as 
a rule rises either in a steep bank or in a more gradual incline, and 
within a few feet, or at most within a few rods, the barren level flat 
gives way to a surface which is covered with grass or bushes and 
which in some localities is very irregular. On the east and west 
sides of the flat the surface intervening between the beaches and the 
flat has distinctly more gradient than the surface immediately out- 
side of the beaches. Indeed, the slope between the beaches and the 
flat is so steep that many gullies have started, most of which are 
being eroded headward toward the beaches, but a few of which have 
already been cut through them. This relatively steep slope immedi- 
ately surrounding the flat may have resulted in part through the 
deposition near the shore of the coarse material brought into the 
lake. In part, however, it may be due to wind erosion since the 
dissection of the lake. 

Apparently the wind is at present cutting back the north and east 
banks of the flat (see PI. VII, A), and it seems probable that this 
process of progressively cutting back the banks on the leeward side 
has been important in the development of the flat. Near the mar- 
gin a few small outliers of clay remain, generally protected from 
wind erosion by clumps of saltbush, but in time these outliers will no 
doubt be cut away. Outliers of this type are shown in Plate V, A 
(p. 33), but others are more completely isolated. The ground-water 
level establishes a plane below which wind erosion is impossible, and 
consequently a shallow-water region subjected to wind erosion is 
likely to develop a level surface. 

FEATURES PRODUCED BY SPRINGS. 

Several small knolls occur at certain springs of the Croton Springs 
group, near the northwest angle of the barren flat, in or near the 
southern part of sec. 36, T. 14 S., R. 24 E. The largest knoll (see 
PI. VII, B, and fig. 7) is about 20 feet in diameter and 4 feet high, and 
stands on a conical platform 150 to 200 feet hi diameter and 5 to 10 
feet high. It was apparently formed by the combined work of the 
spring and the wind. The spring produced a marshy area in which 
rushes and other plants thrived. When the wind struck this clump 
of vegetation it was checked, and consequently deposited the sand 
and dust which it was driving along. Once lodged among the 
rushes, the sand and dust became wet and could not be carried farther. 
Each generation of plants left its remains to be mingled with the mud, 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



/ATER-SUPPLY PAPER 320 PLATE VII 




Wfmm 




A. CROSS-BEDDED WIND DEPOSITS AT MARGIN OF BARREN FLAT. 
Eroded by wind and water. 




B. TYPICAL SPRING-BUILT KNOLL AT CROTON SPRINGS. 




C. ANCIENT LAKE SEDIMENTS. 



PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. 



43 



and thus to be in part preserved. Gradually 
the accumulation of sand, clay, and vegetable 
matter grew until it attained its present pro- 
portions as a distinct though small topo- 
graphic feature. 

Probably one of the essential conditions 
for the formation of a knoll is that as the 
knoll develops it shall assume the character of 
an upright tube, in order that the water will 
not ooze out at the lowest level, but will be 
lifted to the top of the knoll. When the 
water no longer rises to the top, either because 
of leakage through the walls of the tube or 
because the limits of artesian pressure are 
reached, the knoll can grow no higher. At 
the time the knoll just described was visited 
no water was being discharged from the top, 
but the ground was wet virtually to the top 
and there were signs of former discharge. On 
boring into the top of the knoll the ground- 
water level was struck at a depth of less than 
a foot and at a level several feet above the sur- 
face of the surrounding plain. After a depth 
of about 2 feet had been reached the auger 
could easily be pushed down without boring. 
These conditions show that this knoll has to 
some extent the upright tube structure. That 
the tube is not entirely impervious is shown, 
however, by the seepage that occurs at the 
base of the knoll. (See fig. 7.) The wind 
erosion manifest on the southwest side of this 
knoll shows how quickly the entire structure 
would be reduced to the level of the surround- 
ing plain if the supply of water were for any 
reason cut off so that the material of the 
knoll would no longer be kept wet. 

Knolls of this type are not confined to 
Sulphur Spring Valley. Much larger knolls, 
apparently formed in the same manner, occur 
in Snake Valley, Utah, 1 and in the Tularosa 
Basin, N. Mex. 



o 
55 3- 



i Meinzer, O. E., Ground water in Juab, Millard, and Iron counties, 
Utah: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 277, 1911, pp. 
44-45. 



44 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

GEOLOGY. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
PREVIOUS WORK AND LITERATURE. 

Thomas Antisell and C. C. Parry, the geologists who accompanied 
the two expeditions that crossed Sulphur Spring Valley in 1855, 
made some observations on the geology of the valley and adjoining 
mountains, and Antisell attempted a reconnaissance geologic map 
and section of the region. 

G. K. Gilbert, who in connection with the Wheeler Survey visited 
the northeastern part of this region in 1873, made a number of valua- 
ble observations on the geology of the Pinaleno, Dos Cabezas, and 
northern Chiricahua ranges, drew several sections of the formations 
between the Dos Cabezas and Fort Bowie, and formulated a theory 
of the structure and origin of the mountains that is still generally 
accepted. 

Since the late seventies, when rich ore bodies were discovered in 
this region, numerous accounts of the Tombstone, Bisbee, Cochise, 
Dos Cabezos, and Turquoise mining districts have been published, 
and most of these accounts include brief statements of the geologic 
relations. Among these accounts may be mentioned a description 
of the Cochise district by L. O. Kellogg, published in 1906. Two 
popular works on Arizona were published, one in 1878 by R. J. 
Hinton and the other in 1881 by Patrick. Hamilton. Both books 
sketch the geology of Arizona and contain meager statements in 
regard to the geology of the region under consideration. More 
recently William P. Blake made a cursory study of the Galiuro Moun- 
tains and E. T. Dumble a reconnaissance through the Dragoon, Mule, 
Swisshelm, Chiricahua, and Dos Cabezas mountains. Dumble's 
paper contains the first recorded mention of Cretaceous rocks in this 
region. 

By far the most extensive and valuable geologic work in the region 
was that of F. L. Ransome in his investigation of the Bisbee quad- 
rangle in 1902. 

The publications based on investigations specifically mentioned 
above are included in the following list. They are concerned chiefly 
with the geology of the rock formations found in the mountains and 
especially with the geology of ore deposits. The study of the ground 
waters of the valley has, on the other hand, involved a careful exami- 
nation of the physiographic and geologic features of the valley itself 
but has not required any detailed study of the geology of the sur- 
rounding mountains: 

Parry, C. C, Mexican Boundary Survey, vol. 1, pt. 2, Geology and paleontology, 
1857. 

Antisell, Thomas, Explorations and surveys for a railroad from Mississippi River 
to Pacific Ocean, 1853-1856, vol. 7, pt. 2, Geological report, Washington, 1857. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 320 PLATE 



System Columnar 
Section 



Character of Formations 




-Wind deposits, consisting of cross-bedded sand and clay 
Beach gravel. 
" Sheets of extrusive basaltic lava 

Stream deposits, consisting of irregular beds of clay, sand, gravel, 
and caliche ; interbedded lake sediments, consisting chiefly of 
dark, dense clay 



Reddish acidic porphyritic lavas ; associated agglomerates 
and tuffs 



Red nodular shales with cross-bedded buff, tawny, and red 
sandstones ; a few beds of impure limestone near base 



Thick-bedded hard gray fossiliferous limestone 
Thin-bedded arenaceous fossiliferous limestone 



Buff, tawny, and red sandstones and dark -red shales, with an 
occasional thin bed of impure limestone near the top 



Bedded conglomerate ; rests on irregular surface of erosion 



Principally light-gray compact fossiliferous limestone 



Granite porphyry erupted into Carboniferous and older rocks 



Thick-bedded white and light-gray limestone 



Dark-gray fossiliferous limestone 



Thin-bedded impure cherty limestones 



Moderately thick -bedded, cross-bedded quartzites, 
with basal conglomerate 



Granite, syenite, gneiss, and schist 



Vertical scale approximately 2000 feet to 1 inch 



COLUMNAR SECTION. 
Scale approximately 2,000 feet to 1 inch. Section below Tertiary taken chiefly from Bisbee folio. 



GEOLOGY. 45 

Gilbert, G. K., and Loew, Oscar, U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3, 1875. 

Hinton, R. J., The handbook of Arizona, San Francisco, and New York, 1878. 

Hamilton, Patrick, The resources of Arizona, 1st ed., Prescott, Ariz., 1881; 2d 
ed., San Francisco, 1883; 3d ed., San Francisco, 1884. 

Dumble, E. T., Notes on the geology of southeastern Arizona: Trans. Am. Inst. 
Min. Eng., vol. 31, 1902, pp. 696-715. 

Blake, William P., Geology of the Galiuro Mountains, Ariz., and of the gold- 
bearing ledge known as Gold Mountain: Eng. and Min. Jour. vol. 73, 1902, pp. 546 
and 547. 

Ransome, F. L., Bisbee folio (No. 112), Geol. Atlas U/S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904. 

Kellogg, L. O., Sketch of the geology and ore deposits of the Cochise mining dis- 
trict, Cochise County, Ariz.: Econ. Geology, vol. 1, 1906, pp. 651-659. 

PBE-QUATERNARY GEOLOGY. 

FORMATIONS. 

PRE-CAMBRIAN SCHIST. 

Pre-Cambrian schist, formed by the metamorphism of a sediment- 
ary rock, comes to the surface over an extensive area in the Mule 
Mountains. Schist probably belonging to the same formation is 
also know in the Dragoon and Little Dragoon ranges and in the 
vicinity of Fort Bowie. The small butte 5 miles northwest of Bonita 
post office (see PL I) consists of dark schist with numerous included 
quartz veins. .The Scott Hills (PI. IV, C, p. 32), 3 J miles north of 
Willcox, consist of a quartz mass whose geologic relations are con- 
cealed by the valley fill. A similar quartz mass in Pearce Hill is 
associated with igneous rocks. 

PALEOZOIC QUARTZITES AND LIMESTONES. 

The Paleozoic rocks of southeastern Arizona consist of a succession 
of quartzite and limestone beds which rest with pronounced uncon- 
formity on the pre-Cambrian schist. In the Bisbee quadrangle the 
Paleozoic formations have a maximum thickness aggregating not 
less than a mile, of which 1,200 feet is Cambrian, 340 feet Devonian, 
and the rest Carboniferous. Although the Ordovician and Silurian 
systems are not represented, no noticeable unconformity exists 
between the Cambrian and Devonian, the entire succession of Paleo- 
zoic beds apparently forming one uninterrupted series. (See co- 
lumnar section, PL VIII.) 

In the Bisbee quadrangle the Cambrian system includes two 
formations — a quartzite about 430 feet thick with a basal conglomer- 
ate resting on the unconformable schist surface and an overlying 
limestone about 770 feet thick. Resting on the Cambrian limestone 
is the Devonian limestone, which in turn is succeeded by lower Car- 
boniferous limestone and a great thickness of upper Carboniferous 
limestone. 

The mountains which border the southern and central parts of 
Sulphur Spring Valley consist in large part of quartzite and dark gray 



46 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

indurated limestone which without question represent in general the 
Paleozoic rock systems that are found in the Mule Mountains. 

Quartzite and limestone are abundant in the Dragoon Mountains, 
constitute the first ridge of the Little Dragoon Mountains north of 
the railroad, and are found in the vicinity of Johnson. In the Cochise 
Stronghold the quartzite beds are upturned, forming steep mountain 
walls, and the limestones have been converted into marble. 

In these mountains Dumble differentiated Carboniferous, Devonian, 
and older Paleozoic rocks. The southern part of the Dos Cabezas 
Range consists of a quartzite, limestone, and shale series in which 
Carboniferous and earlier Paleozoic fossils have been found. Pale- 
ozoic limestones are also exposed in the Swisshelm Range. 

A number of the buttes (see PL I), especially Ash Creek Ridge 
and many of the ridgelike hills between Ash Creek Ridge and the. 
Swisshelm Mountains, consist of quartzite and dark-gray indurated 
limestone. In only a few of these isolated rock outcrops were 
Paleozoic fossils found, but in general the rocks bear a strong litho- 
logic and topographic resemblance to the rocks in the mountains 
that are known to be Paleozoic. 

CRETACEOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. 

The Cretaceous formations of this region form a series of conglom- 
erates, sandstones, shales, and limestones of Lower Cretaceous 
(Comanche) age. In the Bisbee quadrangle, where they have been 
carefully studied, they rest unconformably on Paleozoic and pre- 
Cambrian rocks and attain a maximum thickness nearly or quite as 
great as that of the Paleozoic formations in the same area. The 
most distinctive Cretaceous formation, in respect to its lithology, 
the fossils that it includes, and the topographic forms that it produces, 
is the Mural limestone, which occurs near the middle of the series. 

Within the Sulphur Spring Valley drainage basin, the Cretaceous 
rocks have their greatest development in the Mule Mountains and, 
according to Dumble, in the vicinity of Rucker Cairyon in the Chiri- 
cahua Mountains. 

In the central and northern parts of this region Cretaceous forma- 
tions have not been recognized. The Little Dragoon Mountains, 
contain a widely distributed conglomerate whose constituent pebbles 
are derived chiefly from Paleozoic limestones. This conglomerate 
must be younger than the limestones whose pebbles it includes, but 
its age has not been definitely determined. 

The only Cretaceous outcrops recognized within the valley are in 
the group of buttes in the vicinity of Forrest station. These buttes 
are capped with Mural limestone and have an aspect distinctly dif- 
ferent from that of the other buttes. 



GEOLOGY. 47 

IGNEOUS ROCKS. 

Igneous rocks and beds composed of volcanic fragments occur 
widely throughout the drainage basin of Sulphur Spring Valley. 
They comprise the bulk of the Pinaleno, Galiuro, Winchester, Chiri- 
cahua, and Perilla ranges, form a large part of the mass of the Dos 
Cabezas Range, comprise the Dos Cabezas peaks, outcrop exten- 
sively in the Little Dragoon Mountains between Johnson and Dragoon 
station, occur at the surface in the Cochise Stronghold and adjacent 
area to the south, are exposed throughout the southern part of the 
Dragoon Range, are found over a large area in the Mule Mountains, 
overlie the limestones in the Swisshelm Mountains, and constitute a 
vast majority of the buttes in the valley. 

The igneous rocks appear to belong to at least four distinct groups 
widely separated in age. Three of these groups are pre-Quaternary, 
one being pre-Cambrian, one post-Carboniferous and pre-Cretaceous, 
and one probably Tertiary. 

The coarsely crystalline, granitic, and syenitic gneisses which 
constitute the main mass of the Pinaleno Mountains and form the 
core of the Dos Cabezas Range were regarded by Gilbert as pre- 
Cambrian. They are associated with the pre-Cambrian schist and 
are probably to be correlated with the pre-Cambrian granite in the 
Clifton quadrangle 1 and the pre-Cambrian granitic intrusions in the 
schists of the Globe quadrangle. 2 

In the portion of the Mule Mountains lying in the Bisbee quadrangle 
no pre-Cambrian granitic intrusive rocks are found. The large body 
of granite and granite porphyry exposed is of much later origin, as is 
shown by the fact that many of the granite porphyry dikes have been 
intruded into the upper Carboniferous limestones. The pre-Cretace- 
ous age of these rocks is established by the fact that they have 
supplied pebbles to the basal Cretaceous conglomerates. The large 
masses of granite found in the Dragoon and Little Dragoon ranges 
probably belong, at least in part, with the granite and granite por- 
phyry of the Mule Mountains. 

The most abundant and widely distributed igneous rocks of this 
region are red, reddish-gray, and yellowish acidic lavas of probable 
Tertiary age. They have a stony groundmass in which are embedded 
numerous small phenocrysts, chiefly of quartz, feldspar, and mica. 
Rocks that appear to belong to this group are found in the lower parts 
of the Pinaleno Range, are extensively developed in the Dos Cabezas 
and Chiricahua ranges, lie above the limestone in the Swisshelm 
Mountains, and constitute the main mass of the Perilla Mountains. 
They also occur extensively in the Galiuro Mountains, comprise most 
of the Winchester Range, and are widely exposed in the southern 

i Lindgren, Waldemar, Clifton folio (No. 129), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, ppr5, 6. 
2 Eansome, F. L., Globe folio (No. Ill), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey. 1904, pp. 6, 7. 



48 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

part of the Dragoon Mountains. They form most of the buttes in 
the valley. (See PL I.) 

In the Mule Mountains several small dikes of light-gray porphyritic 
rock containing small phenocrysts of feldspar and mica are intruded 
into the Cretaceous beds and are therefore younger than these beds. 
Throughout most of the region the Cretaceous beds are absent and 
the youngest pre-Qua ternary rocks with which the lavas come into 
contact are either Paleozoic or pre-Cambrian. The age of these lavas 
can therefore not be definitely fixed. Probably they belong to the 
general group of igneous formations that occur very extensively 
farther north, and that, in the vicinity of Clifton, Ariz., appear to be 
much younger than the Lower Cretaceous sedimentary beds. 1 

The Galiuro Mountains are composed in large part of roughly 
stratified, gently dipping agglomeratic beds whose peculiar light- 
colored groundmass contains numerous large rock fragments of 
various sorts. This formation attains a thickness of hundreds of 
feet and is sufficiently resistant to weathering to form high, precipi- 
tous, flat-topped ridges. It rests upon volcanic rocks and contains 
porphyritic inclusions but in many places is also intruded and over- 
lain by lavas. Agglomerates and tuffs are also found in other 
localities. 

The basaltic lavas found in a few places in this region are, at least 
in part, of Quaternary age and are therefore described under the 
heading "Quaternary geology." (See pp. 68-70). 

STRUCTURE. 

The sedimentary and metamorphic formations of this region belong 
to four distinct groups of formations — pre-Cambrian, Paleozoic, 
Cretaceous, and Quaternary, the last being the valley fill described 
under " Quaternary geology" (pp. 52-78). Generally speaking, each 
group consists of a succession of conformable beds separated by a 
great structural and erosional unconformity from each of the other 
groups with which it comes into contact. The pre-Cambrian rocks 
are the most profoundly altered, the sandy beds from which they are 
derived having been metamorphosed into crystalline schists. The 
Paleozoic formations, though much less altered than the pre- 
Cambrian, have become thoroughly indurated and greatly changed 
from their original condition. The sandstones have been converted 
into quartzite and the limestones have in some places been trans- 
formed into marble. The Cretaceous beds are less altered and less 
indurated, and the Quaternary materials are largely incoherent. 
Similar differences exist in the amount of deformation. The pre- 
Cambrian schists have been more profoundly deformed than the 

* Lindgren, Waldemar, Clifton folio (No. 129), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905. 



GEOLOGY. 49 

Paleozoic beds ; the Paleozoic rocks have undergone decidedly more 
deformation than the Cretaceous; and the Cretaceous rocks have been 
subjected to extensive deformation which has not been shared by 
the valley fill. 

The deformation in this region consisted chiefly of great faulting 
movements by which the crust of the earth was broken into blocks 
of various sizes, and these blocks were tilted in different directions 
and at different angles. To some extent the crust was compressed 
into folds, but more commonly it was broken and faulted. The 
fault theory of rock structure was clearly stated by Gilbert and has 
been corroborated by the work of Kansome in the Bisbee quadrangle. 

The structure of the earth's crust in this region is further compli- 
cated by the igneous rocks which are intruded into and spread over 
the sedimentary formations. Indeed, throughout a large part of 
the region the sedimentary formations are entirely concealed by 
igneous rocks. 

GEOLOGIC HISTORY. 
MAJOR DIVISIONS. 

The geologic history of the region under consideration can be out- 
lined as follows : 1 

1. Pre-Cambrian sedimentation, deformation, volcanism, and metamorphism. 

2. Pre-Cambrian erosion. 

3. Paleozoic and later events: 

a. Paleozoic sedimentation. 

b. Post-Carboniferous deformation, volcanism, and erosion. 

c. Cretaceous sedimentation. 

d. Post-Cretaceous deformation, volcanism, and erosion. 

e. Quaternary erosion and deposition (treated under the heading "Quaternary 
geology".) 

The following account is in large part abbreviated from Kansome's 
Bisbee folio : 

PRE-PALEOZOIC SEDIMENTATION, DEFORMATION, VOLCANISM, AND METAMOR- 
PHISM. 

The dim, timeworn record of the oldest known eon is found in the 
pre-Cambrian schist. This formation probably consisted originally 
of sediments derived from still more ancient rocks and deposited in a 
pre-Cambrian sea. Long before Cambrian time these sediments 
were altered to crumpled crystalline schists and were, therefore, pre- 
sumably deeply buried beneath other rocks and intensely folded and 
compressed. In some parts of the region they were apparently 
intruded by deep-seated bodies of molten rock which solidified to 
form granite, syenite, and gneiss. As a result of the folding and 
intrusion they were probably elevated as an extensive mountain mass. 

i Ransome, F. L., Bisbee folio (No. 112), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, pp. 12, 13. 
82209°— wsp 320—13 4 



50 

PRE-PALEOZOIC EROSION. 

During the second eon, which may not have been sharply marked 
off from the preceding one, this mountainous land was eroded, and 
perhaps underwent many vicissitudes, involving oscillations in level 
and burial beneath fresh sediments which were again stripped away 
by erosion. All that is recorded, however, is a vast interval of erosion 
during which mountains were brought low and rocks bearing the 
stamp of deep-seated igneous and metamorphic processes were 
exposed at the surface of a nearly level plain of erosion. 

PALEOZOIC SEDIMENTATION. 

With the opening of Cambrian time this plain sank beneath the sea. 
The waves, as the shore line encroached upon the lands, rounded the 
fragments, chiefly of vein quartz, that lay on the subsiding land 
surface, added to these fragments such coarse material as they carved 
from the schists by direct attack, and spread the detritus evenly over 
the sea bottom, supplying the material for the basal Cambrian con- 
glomerate. As the shore advanced inland sand, which later became 
quartzite, was deposited above the conglomerate. Then a change 
took place. Either increased subsidence carried this part of the sea 
bottom beyond the reach of shore currents having sufficient power to 
transport sand, or the nearest land mass remaining above water no 
longer supplied sandy sediments. In the clear waters lime-secreting 
animals made their appearance and furnished the material for the 
fossiliferous Cambrian limestone. 

The Ordovician and Silurian periods, which followed the Cambrian 
and represent a very long lapse of time, left no record in the Bisbee 
quadrangle nor, so far as known, within the region here considered, 
although Ordovician beds occur in the vicinity of Clifton. 1 The 
fossiliferous Cambrian beds are succeeded with no visible stratigraphic 
interruption by a limestone that includes abundant characteristic 
Devonian fossils. 

Whatever may have been the conditions during the Ordovician and 
Silurian periods, this region, or at least a part of it, was in the Devonian 
period covered by an open sea of moderate depth, in which flourished 
abundant marine organisms that contributed their calcareous parts 
to form the Devonian limestone. That there was still a land mass 
rising above the sea at no great distance is shown by the occurrence of 
some shale beds within the Devonian formations. 

So far as known the deposition of limestone together with a small 
amount of clayey sediment occasionally washed in from the land 
continued from the Devonian period to the later part of the Carbon- 
iferous. 

i Lindgrcn, Waldemar, Clifton folio (No. 129), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, p. 3. 



GEOLOGY. 51 

POST-CARBONIFEROUS DEFORMATION, VOLCANISM, AND EROSION. 

With the close of the Carboniferous period the long era of Paleozoic 
sedimentation, during which deposits had piled up to a thickness of 
approximately a mile, came to an end, and the region was elevated 
above sea level. To this elevation faulting, folding, and igneous 
intrusions all contributed. 

During Triassic and Jurassic time the mountainous country elevated 
by the post-Carboniferous deformation was subjected to erosion. 
If any sediments were deposited within the region during these 
periods no trace of them has been found. 

CRETACEOUS SEDIMENTATION. 

Erosion had stripped away large parts of Paleozoic beds and had 
given the region a moderately hilly topography when the Cretaceous 
period was introduced by a submergence of at least parts of its 
southern portion. The comparative rapidity of the submergence is 
shown by the variant size and very incomplete rounding of the peb- 
bles that form the basal Cretaceous conglomerate. These pebbles 
were evidently subjected for only a brief time to the wear of the waves 
and were then buried beneath the fine gravels, sands, and muds of the 
overlying formations. Further evidence that the subsidence was, 
locally at least, a geologically rapid movement is found in the hilly 
topography that underlies a considerable part of the Cretaceous beds. 
The pre-Cretaceous surface sank beneath the water before the waves 
could reduce its inequalities by planation or do more than slightly 
rework the stony detritus that littered its slopes and lay in its hollows. 

After a large amount of sand and silt had accumulated in a sea that 
was apparently poorly provided with animal life, a change took place 
in the character of the sediments. The}^ became more calcareous and 
gradually passed into the impure limestones, many of them crowded 
with marine shells that make up the lower member of the Mural lime- 
stone. These fossiliferous calcareous muds were in turn succeeded 
by the fairly pure limestone beds of the upper member of the Mural 
limestone, indicating deposition by a sea containing abundant animal 
life. The 650 feet of Mural limestone, however, mark only an episode 
in a general accumulation of sands and silts, as is shown by the return 
to conditions of sedimentation similar to those which prevailed before 
the Mural limestone was deposited. All the formations laid down 
during this submergence, aggregating nearly 5,000 feet of sediments, 
belong to the Lower Cretaceous (Comanche) epoch. How much more 
material was deposited during later Cretaceous and Tertiary time is 
not known. 



52 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

POST-CRETACEOUS DEFORMATION, VOLCANISM, AND EROSION. 

Since the deposition of the Cretaceous beds the rocks of the region 
have been further deformed b}^ folding and faulting, have been in- 
truded and to a great extent covered by enormous masses of molten 
lava, and have been subjected to erosion. The exact sequence of 
these events is not revealed. Both deformation and volcanic activity 
probably occurred intermittently over a long period, and erosion 
probably went on continuously in some parts of the area. 

QUATERNARY GEOLOGY. 

FORMATIONS. 

PRINCIPAL CLASSES. 

The rock trough in which Sulphur Spring Valley lies has been con- 
structed by the deformation and erosion of the rocks that have just 
been described. Since its construction it has been partly filled with 
sediments supplied by these rocks and washed out from the mountains 
which form its borders. These sediments are known as valley fill. 
For the most part they remain in the position in which they were de- 
posited by the streams, but to some extent they have been handled 
by waves and lake currents, by the wind, or by underground waters, 
and have been redeposited according to the laws that govern each of 
these agencies. The materials that have not been rehandled since 
they were washed out from the mountains are known as stream 
deposits. 

STREAM DEPOSITS. 

Distribution and thickness. — The stream deposits lie at the surface 
over more than nine-tenths of the area of the valley and over more 
than one-half of the area of the entire drainage basin. (See PI. I.) 
These deposits have not been very much deformed or eroded, and their 
edges are therefore not exposed as are the edges of the older forma- 
tions in the mountains. Hence not much direct information in regard 
to their thickness and character can be obtained except by drilling 
wells. In fact, they form a blanket which to a great extent conceals 
not only the structure of the rocks below the valley, but also the 
geologic record of the valley fill itself. 

The average width of the debris-filled valley is about 20 miles, 
and the maximum distance between the margins of opposite mountain 
walls is over 30 miles. The average inclination of the sides of the 
mountain ranges, from crest to margin, is at least several hundred 
feet to the mile, and in some places reaches 1,000 feet to the mile. 
If the sides of opposite ranges are projected toward each other, so as 
to form a V-shaped rock trough, the axis of the trough may easily be 
several thousand feet below the surface of the valley, the intervening 
space being occupied by valley fill. In fact, however, the rock floor 



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[pOti Red clay f 


fcS|" "1 Graveljwater) = 


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Red clay (water) F 












Gravel and red clay = 








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aiuiijuu'ldtrs. .;;- ■-.;.- l"Cirm.».l .'■ gr.'.ve\, r~ 

nd ;:^ ; .:-.':-.L .ind bowidtrs Lr;r±." 



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Sand and JSf" 


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SECTIONS OF THE VALLEY FILL AT DOUGLAS, ARIZ. 






GEOLOGY. 53 

on which the valley fill rests is irregular, as is shown by the numerous 
buttes, which are merely parts of the rock floor that stand so high 
that they have not yet been covered by sediment. 

At the Copper Queen smelter in Douglas a well sunk to the depth 
of 1,095 feet passes through nothing except characteristic stream 
deposits (PI. IX) ; at the old Douglas waterworks a well 884 feet deep 
passes through valley fill and interbedded lava and ends in " sand- 
stone," which is probably also valley fill; on the Van Meter ranch, 3 
miles southeast of Soldiers Hole, a well is said to have been drilled 
over 1,000 feet deep without reaching bedrock; at Kelton Junction 
a railway well 650 feet deep appears to end in valley fill; at Willcox 
two wells between 400 and 500 feet deep have been drilled without 
striking rock; and several other wells over 400 feet deep have been 
reported, all of which apparently end in valley fill. Along Gila 
Valley and some of the tributary valleys that are comparable with 
Sulphur Spring Valley the stream deposits have become extensively 
eroded and thicknesses of over 1,000 feet are revealed. 

It is of course likely that there are projections of the rock floor 
which have been entirely submerged by sediments. Where such 
buried buttes exist the stream deposits may be very thin, although 
there may be no surface indications of the unusual conditions. Rock 
has been struck by the drill at many points in the vicinity of mountains 
and buttes, but several hundred feet of valley fill is not uncommonly 
penetrated within a fraction of a mile from projecting rock masses. 
The well of the Commonwealth Mining Co. and the well of Harper 
& Williams in Pearce are almost at the base of Pearce Hill, yet the 
former passes through about 285 feet of gravel and clay before enter- 
ing igneous rock and the latter ends in valley fill at a depth of 240 feet. 
The Southwest wells, which are encircled by buttes, go to depths of 
150 and 222 feet, but both are said to enter rock. A number of holes 
drilled among the buttes in the vicinity of Leslie Creek have also 
struck rock at reported depths of 65 to 280 feet. 

All lines of evidence indicate that the valley fill of Sulphur Spring 
Valley, consisting chiefly of stream deposits, is in few places less than 
several hundred feet thick, and that over large areas remote from 
mountains and buttes it may be more than 1,000 feet thick. 

Character. — The stream deposits consist of clay, silt, sand, gravel, 
and bowlders, of various mixtures of these materials, and of these 
materials firmly bedded in a cement matrix consisting for the most 
part of lime carbonate (PL IX). On the whole, the clayey deposits 
largely predominate. They are prevailingly of a pale-reddish color, 
but may be blue or, less commonly, almost white. 

A stream confined within a steep, narrow canyon may flow so 
swiftly that it will transport not only clay and sand, but pebbles and 
bowlders as well. When, upon reaching the valley, its carrying 



54 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

power is diminished it will as a rule drop first the bowlders, then, the 
pebbles, and then the sand, but it may hold the impalpable particles 
of clay in suspension until it disappears by seepage and evaporation 
or collects on the flat in the center of the valley. In this way the 
streams tend to sort the debris which they handle, depositing the 
coarsest material nearest the mountains and the finest farther out 
in the valley. This general sorting process is evident on all the 
stream-built slopes. The soil of the upper part of a slope is generally 
too stony to be cultivated, and the soil of the lowest part is likely to 
consist of heavy clay that is likewise poorly adapted for agriculture. 
The loams, which make good farming land, are found chiefly on inter- 
mediate parts of the slope. This gradation in soil is manifested by 
corresponding zones of vegetation. It is also forced on the atten- 
tion of well drillers. Holes drilled on the upper slopes not uncom- 
monly become so crooked that they have to be abandoned because 
the drill is deflected by bowlders — a difficulty not encountered in the 
lower parts of the valley. 

In the vicinity of buttes and small mountain ranges the transition 
from coarse to fine deposits may be abrupt. The debris from these 
small rock masses is generally coarse, and in the very small buttes it 
forms a talus rather than a stream-built slope. This coarse material 
is not carried far from the parent rock mass, and within a short dis- 
tance it is surrounded by fine sediments brought from large mountains 
much farther away. The sorting done by the streams is very imper- 
fect. In places the carrying power of the water diminishes so sud- 
denly that pebbles, sand, and clay, and sometimes even bowlders and 
clay, are dropped simultaneously, and the resulting deposit has a 
clayey matrix which includes grit, pebbles, and even bowlders. In- 
deed, the beds reported by drillers as clay are commonly not clay 
in the strict sense, but contain large proportions of gritty material 
and numerous small embedded pebbles. They are not, like true clay, 
impervious to water, but allow a slow seepage which supplies many 
shallow domestic wells. On the other hand, the beds reported as 
gravel are not all composed of clean gravels but may consist of pebbles 
and bowlders so completely embedded in a clayey matrix that the 
bed will yield no more water than a bed of so-called clay. 

The successive floods that issue from any canyon differ greatly in 
size and therefore in carrying power. A large flood will sweep coarse 
materials far into the valley and will roll great bowlders to incredible 
distances from the mountains. A small flood will be powerless to 
move bowlders at all, and its waters will disappear soon after leaving 
the mountains and will therefore deposit even the finest portion of 
their load on the upper part of the slope. As a result fine sediments 
are thrown down upon beds of coarse debris, and at any given point 
the drill penetrates successive beds of different character. This con- 



GEOLOGY. 55 

dition is shown by the sections of all wells that pass through the 
stream deposits. It is illustrated by the sections of the Copper Queen 
smelter wells Nos. 1 and 2 (PL IX). The other well sections given 
in Plate IX show a less rapid succession of strata probably for the 
simple reason that they were reported in less detail by the drillers. 
To some extent the pebbly clays mentioned above are produced by 
the percolation of muddy waters into gravel beds. 

A stream does not build all parts of its slope simultaneously. It 
takes its course over one part of the slope until by deposition of its 
load it has elevated this part above the rest. Then the stream, always 
seeking the lowest levels, breaks away from the elevated tract and 
builds up another part of the slope. Frequently also the waters 
divide after emerging from the canyon, small streams spreading out 
over parts of the slope and depositing the fine materials while the 
main stream sweeps over an adjacent part and deposits only coarse 
material at the same level. Consequently a stream deposit has little 
continuity, especially in a direction at right angles to the slope. This 
condition is everywhere observed by drillers and causes great surprise. 
Two wells not far apart may have very different sections. For ex- 
ample, at a given level water-bearing sand or gravel may occur in 
one well and nothing but clay be found in the other. The Copper 
Queen Smelter wells Nos. 1 and 2 (PL IX) are close together and their 
sections as reported by the driller are practically identical, but the 
sections of five other Copper Queen wells, all within short distances 
of one another, show little similarity. They all pass chiefly through 
clayey beds within the upper 150 feet and find sand and gravel at 
lower levels, but it is not possible to correlate the individual strata, 
whereas marine and lacustrine formations can generally be correlated 
in spite of inaccuracies in the drillers' logs. 

The people of the valley commonly speak of the first, second, and 
third water-bearing strata as if each stratum were a well-defined bed 
extending without interruption beneath a large area. In fact no con- 
tinuity generally exists. The first water-bearing sand in one well 
may not be continuous with the first water-bearing sand in a well 
near by. It may be a bed which in the other well is absent, or lies 
above the water level, or dips down and is known as the second 
stratum. 

The stream deposits are not entirely incoherent. At certain hori- 
zons they have become thoroughly cemented by lime carbonate and 
may be almost as hard as some of the rock formations outcropping 
in the mountains (PL IX). In many places a layer of caliche is found 
within a few feet of the surface, but cemented beds may occur at 
any level, and on the whole they probably increase with depth. A 
certain amount of cementation has taken place in nearly all the stream 
deposits, as is shown by the fact that wells do not require curbings 



56 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

above the water level, and also by the pale colors and effervescence 
with acid of most of the materials brought to the surface in drilling. 
Correlation. — The detrital fill of Sulphur Spring Valley is believed 
to correspond in age and mode of origin to the dissected valley deposits 
along the upper Gila and its tributaries, which Gilbert studied in 1873 
and to which he gave the name Gila conglomerate. Such a correla- 
tion is clearly suggested in the following description : 1 

The Gila conglomerate. — A system of valley beds, of which a conglomerate is the 
characteristic member, is exhibited in section along the gorges of the upper Gila 
and its tributaries. The bowlders of the conglomerate are of local origin, and their 
derivation from particular mountain flanks is often indicated by the slopes of the 
beds. Its cement is calcareous. Interbedded with it are layers of slightly coherent 
sand, and of trass, and sheets of basalt; the latter, in some cliffs, rjredominating over 
the conglomerate. One thousand feet of the beds are frequently exposed, and the 
maximum exposure on the Prieto is probably 1,500 feet. They have been seen at 
so many points by Mr. Howell and myself that their distribution can be given in 
general terms. Beginning at the mouth of the Bonita, below which point their dis- 
tinctive characters are lost, they follow the Gila for more than 100 miles toward its 
source, being last seen a little above the mouth of the Gilita. On the San Francisco 
they extend 80 miles; on the Prieto, 10; and on the Bonito, 15. Where the Gila inter- 
sects the troughs of the Basin Range system, as it does north of Ralston, the con- 
glomerate is continuous with the gravels which occupy the troughs and floor of the 
desert plains. Below the Bonita it merges insensibly with the detritus of Pueblo 
Viejo Desert. It is, indeed, one of the "Quaternary gravels" of the desert interior, 
and is distinguished from its family only by the fact that the watercourses which 
cross it are sinking themselves into it and destroying it, instead of adding to its depth. 
It is in its relation to the rivers that it is chiefly interesting; in the accumulation and 
subsequent excavation of the beds there is recorded a reversal of conditions that may 
have a broad meaning. The base of the series in its deepest parts is not exposed, 
and if we go back to the beginning of its deposition we have to picture the val- 
leys as deeper than they are revealed at present. 2 During the accumulation the 
altitude of the drainage lines steadily increased — their altitude, that is, in relation 
to the surrounding mountains — and it attained its maximum when the top of the 
conglomerate was laid, since which time it has as steadily diminished. There is 
no difficulty in comprehending the present action, for it is the usual habit of swift- 
flowing streams to cut their channels deeper; but to account for the period of accumu- 
lation there must be assumed some condition that has ceased to exist. Such a condi- 
tion might be either a barrier, somewhere below the region in question, determining 
the discharge of the water at a higher level than at present, or it might be a general 
depression of the region, in virtue of which the ocean (now 300 miles away) became 
a virtual barrier. With either hypothesis, a change of more than 1,000 feet must be 
considered. 

In a description of the same formation in the Globe quadrangle 
Ransome makes the following statements: 3 

The Gila formation is essentially a valley deposit, having usually, in spite of deforma- 
tion and dissection, a still recognizable relation to the larger features of the existing 

i Gilbert, G. K., U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3, 1875, pp. 540, 541. 

2 The postulate is not absolutely tenable, since the corrugation by which troughs are produced and 
the filling of those troughs by detritus go forward simultaneously, but it introduces no fallacy in its 
present use. 

a Ransome, F. L., Ulobe folio (No. Ill), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, pp. 5, 6. 



GEOLOGY. 57 

topography. It lies indifferently upon the eroded surfaces of all the other rocks of the 
quadrangle, with the exception of basalt, which occurs as an intercalated flow between 
the conglomeratic beds and is therefore of contemporaneous age * * *. The 
rapid variation in character, the coarseness of the bowlders, the distribution of the 
material with reference to existing mountain ranges, the nature and dip of the strati- 
fication, and the frequent abrupt changes observable in both vertical and horizontal 
sections all point decisively to the result of fluviatile action. The bulk of the Gila 
formation as it occurs in the Globe quadrangle was deposited by streams and resembles 
the material found in the beds of the prevailing dry arroyos to-day. * * * The 
occurrence of large angular blocks near the mountains, with the rapid gradation into 
finer materials toward the middle of the depositional tract, points to tumultuous trans- 
portation — to torrential rushes of water, by which large quantities of rock waste were 
transported in a short time from the mountain slopes to the valley, with little of that 
rounding of individual fragments which characterizes the action of streams having 
a more constant flow, and in which "the materials as a rule travel more leisurely to 
greater distances before coming to rest. 

The Gila conglomerate in the Clifton quadrangle has been studied 
by Lindgren, 1 whose conclusions in regard to it agree with those of 
Gilbert and Ransome. 

Gilbert makes no mention of any deformation of this formation, 
and Lindgren states that so far as known the Gila conglomerate has 
not been warped or dislocated by faulting in the Clifton area. Ran- 
some, however, found that in both the Globe and Ray quadrangles it 
has locally been affected by extensive deformation. Except the 
slight possible tilting shown by the ancient beaches, no evidences of 
deformation were observed in Sulphur Spring Valley, unless, indeed, 
the tilted conglomerates east of Johnson, which were mentioned as 
possibly Cretaceous, should prove to belong to the Gila conglomerate. 

BURIED LAKE (?) BEDS. 

Beds in the north basin. — A well sunk some years ago on the present 
premises of C. T. McGlone, near the southeast margin of the village 
of Willcox, is reported to have reached a depth of 480 feet and to have 
penetrated a bed of clay that does not seem to be a stream deposit. 
In the upper 280 feet the section appears from the reports to consist 
of ordinary stream deposits, including several layers of coarse water- 
bearing gravel. From 280 to 480 feet, however, the drill passed 
through a homogeneous stiff clay, called talc by the driller, presumably 
because it was so fine grained and so entirely wanting in grit that, like 
true talc, it was smooth to the touch. This clay was dark blue at the 
top and jet black farther down, but when exposed to the air it turned 
yellow. It is also reported to have had a strong odor. The black 
color is probably due to impregnation of the formation with sulphides, 
which become rapidly oxidized when they are brought into contact 
with the air, and the odor is probably due to the presence of hydrogen 
sulphide. Throughout the 200 feet that was penetrated the forma- 

i Lindgren, Waldemar, Clifton folio (No. 129), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1905, pp. 5, 6. 



58 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

tion is reported to have yielded no water whatever. When the hole 
was abandoned the drill was working in this clay and there is no means 
of estimating to what depth it may extend. A well drilled for the ice 
plant in Willcox is also said to have been carried to a depth of 400 
feet or more and to have revealed the same bed of black clay. 

In a 200-foot well on the farm of J. C. Page, in the NE. i sec. 22, 
T. 14 S., E. 24 E., about a mile north of Hado station, the upper 85 
feet of material is reported to consist of a succession of beds, several 
of them water-bearing and the remaining 115 feet of homogeneous, 
compact, nonwater-bearing clay, which had a foul odor and is vari- 
ously described as "dark blue" and "perfectly black. " Several other 
wells near the barren flat seem to have entered a similar clay, but 
information in regard to them is vague. Clay of the same character 
underlies the barren flat. 

This black clay is very different from the typical "clay" beds of 
the stream deposits, which are commonly gritty and of a reddish 
color and are interrupted at many horizons by seams of sand and 
gravel. It obviously represents deposition from quiet waters. It 
could possibly have been formed by deposition from temporary sheets 
such as flood the barren flat at the present time, but an uninterrupted 
thickness of 200 feet suggests that it was formed at the bottom of a 
permanent lake or other large body of water. On the barren flat clay 
of this type underlies the surface at about 4,135 feet above sea level. 
In Page's well it was struck at about 4,070 feet, and in Willcox it was 
encountered at about 3,880 feet. It is not improbable that if a series 
of wells were drilled between Willcox and Page's and between Page's 
and the flat the ordinary stream and wind deposits would be found to 
feather out toward the flat, and the body of black clay below the flat 
would be found to be continuous with that penetrated at Page's and 
in Willcox. The uneven upper surface of the black clay could then 
be explained either by assuming that the clay body had been partly 
removed by erosion and the space had later been refilled by stream 
or wind deposits, or by the much more probable assumption that the 
lake had gradually contracted, so that stream deposition was taking 
place at Willcox while lake sedimentation was still going on at 
Page's, and that at a later time stream deposition was taking place 
at both Willcox and Page's while lake sedimentation was still in 
progress where the flat is now situated. Under either hypothesis the 
clay bed underlying Willcox represents an epoch of submergence 
much more ancient than that represented by the beaches and must 
have been separated from the later submergence by an interval 
during which stream deposition was taking place over the zone that 
borders the flat. 

No beds have been reported in the south basin comparable to the 
buried black-clay beds in the vicinity of Willcox. The section of the 



GEOLOGY. 



59 



1,095-foot well at the Copper Queen smelter 
indicates the absence of such beds, at least 
in the vicinity of Douglas. 

Beds in San Simon Valley.— In drilling a 
deep well at San Simon (see fig. 1, p. 10) 
a 430-foot bed of dense homogeneous, 
"sticky," dark-blue, nonwater-bearing clay 
with an odor of hydrogen sulphide was 
struck 145 feet below the surface, or at a 
level 3,465 feet above the sea. This forma- 
tion is overlain by successive strata of 
"yellow clay," sand, and gravel, which ap- 
pear to be ordinary stream deposits, and is 
underlain by a series of alternating beds 
of sand, clay, "caliche and pebbles," etc., 
which have been penetrated by the drill 
for 275 feet and which appear to consist in 
whole or in part of stream deposits that 
have become consolidated and cemented to 
a greater extent than the stream deposits 
nearer the surface. (See fig. 8.) This thick 
bed of well-assorted clay bears a strong re- 
semblance to the black-clay formation in 
Sulphur Spring Valley and, like it, suggests 
if it does not demand a theory of lake origin. 

About 18 miles northwest of San Simon 
station, along the west side of the axial ^ 
draw of San Simon Valley, 15 or 20 feet 
of a series of stratified beds is exposed. 
This series consists of layers of gypsiferous 
dark-gray and brown clay, alternating with 
layers of volcanic ash, or tuff. (See PL X, 
A.) The tuffaceous material has a mottled 
appearance, cream, which is the predominant 
hue, blending with pure white and delicate 
shades of brown and green. Its bright colors 
attract attention by their strong contrast 
with the dull, gray hues of the desert. It 
consists of small, loosely aggregated frag- 
ments and is minutely vesicular and of low 
specific gravity. The most massive bed ob- 
served is about 6 inches thick and forms the 
cap rock that protects the underlying less 
resistant clay. 



Elev. 
Feet 



Clay 



Sand (water which 
rK stood about 65 feet 
below surface) 



Clay 

Sand and gravel 
(water which rose 
to about 65 feet 
below surface) 



Dense, dark blue 
clay with foul odor 



— 2,800- 



Fine sand (flow) 



Gray "joint"clay 



Fine sand (flow) 
"Caliche" and clay 

Coarse sand (flow) 



'Caliche ."pebbles, 
and clay 



Coarse sand (flow) 



Hard clay 



Coarse sand (flowj 



Figure 8.— Section of artesian 
well at San Simon, Ariz. 



60 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

What appears to be the same series of outcrops was observed by- 
Oscar Loew in 1873 and is described by him as follows: 1 

On the plain extending from Fort Bowie to the Peloncillo Mountains, about 4 miles 
south of Whitlock's ci^nega, are found stratified deposits of a yellowish soft porous 
material, in thickness from 12 to 13 feet, and in extent about one-sixth of a mile. The 
mass easily crumbled to powder between the fingers, had no similarity at all to clay, 
and the presence of very fine grit could be distinctly recognized. 

On digestion with strong acids, a complete decomposition was effected. Alumina, 
lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, and alkalies were dissolved, while silicic acid was sepa- 
rated, and remained with the fine grit, which proved to be plain silica. It follows, 
therefore, that this tuff is a mixture of free particles of quartz with hydrous silicate. 

Analysis of San Simon tuff. 2 

Silica 64. 61 

Alumina 14. 32 

Oxide of iron 2. 98 

Lime 3. 01 

Magnesia 1. 36 

Soda 3. 19 

Potassa Trace. 

Water 10. 42 

99.89 

Exposures were seen at two places about a mile apart ; and the main 
beds in the two places could be correlated with each other. No out- 
crops of this character were observed between the locality of these 
exposures and Rodeo, N". Mex. ; the valley below these exposures was 
not seen. The outcrops occur about 3,400 feet above sea level. 

The stratified deposits are not related to the present topography. 
Except where they have been exposed by recent erosion they are 
buried beneath stream deposits, like the clay bed struck at San Simon 
station. 

Beds in San Bernardino Valley. — -A compact blue clay approxi- 
mately 45 feet thick is reported to have been penetrated in each of 
the nine wells drilled on Slaughter's ranch, in San Bernardino Valley. 
It was struck at a level which ranges in the different wells from about 
280 to more than 300 feet below the surface and is approximately 
3,450 feet above the sea. This clay is sufficiently different from the 
ordinary stream deposits to have been recognized as a distinct stratum 
by those who drilled the wells. Apparently it is underlain by stream 
deposits of the usual type. 

Beds in San Pedro Valley. — A series of stratified beds outcropping 
in the San Pedro Valley (see fig. 1, p. 10) was discovered and studied 
by Blake, 3 who made the following statements in regard to them: 

On both sides of San Pedro Valley there are unconsolidated red clays and sediments 
in horizontal beds of great thickness, often terraced by the river erosion, and extending 

i U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3, 1875, pp. 643, 644. 

2 Analysis at 100° C. 

3 Blake, W. P., Lake Quiburis, an ancient Pliocene lake in Arizona: Univ. Arizona Monthly, vol. 4, 
No. 4, February, 1902. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 320 PLATE X 




1 



~z?. 



A. STRATIFIED BEDS IN VALLEY FILL OF SAN SIMON VALLEY. 




B. CALICHE EXPOSED BY GRADING OF ROAD. 



GEOLOGY. 



61 



high up on the sides of the bordering mountains. 
One of the best cross sections is found on the 
line of the Southern Pacific Railway, which 
crosses the valley nearly at right angles to its 
course at Benson. Benson, in the bottom of the 
valley, has an altitude of 3,576 feet above the 
sea. The river is about 50 feet lower. The la- 
custrine clays rise from this point on each side to a 
height of about 3,800 feet, * * * 

Sediments similar to those around Benson border 
the valley northwards toward the Gila Valley. We 
there also find in addition thick beds of diatomite 
mingled with the fine volcanic ash. These diatoms 
are mostly marine species, according to Dr. D. B. 
Ward, of Poughkeepsie, but some fr'esh -water forms 
are present. San Pedro Valley thus appears to have 
been occupied by sea water. It was open on the 
north to the great open valley of the Gila and Salt 
Pviver and would appear to have existed as a partly 
landlocked estuary, at least in the upper portion 
between the Dragoon Mountains and the Whetstones 
and Huachucas. 

In another paper * Blake says : 

The diatom fossils occur in thick beds many square 
miles in area, in horizontal layers cut through by 
ravines, and probably 100 feet in thickness. These 
beds when freshly broken are snow-white and chalk- 
like in appearance but are siliceous and not cal- 
careous in composition. Under the microscope the 
diatoms are seen to be distributed through or min- 
gled with nearly colorless vitreous particles, appar- 
ently a very finely divided volcanic ash or dust, such 
as may have been wafted by the wind and deposited 
in a lake or estuary of quiet water. 

The gypsum in these beds is described 
by Blake 2 as follows : 

The gypsum along San Pedro River occurs in hori- 
zontal beds, probably of Pliocene or post-Pliocene 
age. The strata are soft, unconsolidated gray sand- 
stones and clays and appear to be the lower members 
of the same series in which the beds of diatomite and 
volcanic ash are found. The gypsum is interstrati- 
fied conformably in comparatively thin layers or 
seams, rarely more than a few inches in thickness. 
These layers appear to have been formed subsequent 
to the deposition of the strata by crystallization 
from the infiltration of gypseous solutions. The 
mineral occurs as selenite and also in the fibrous 
form as satin spar. 



Elev. 
Feet 



Clay 

Clay 



Surface soil 



Sand and gravel 



Clay 



Sand 
Sand 



Gravel , 
Sand and clay 

Cement 

Sand and "flint rock' 



Figure 9. — Section of railroad well 
at Benson, Ariz. 



i Blake, W. P., Arizona diatomite: Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., vol. 14, pt. 1, 1903, pp. 107-111. 
2 Blake, W. P., Gypsum deposits in the United States: Bull. U. S. Oeol. Survey No. 223, 1904, pp. 
100-101. 



62 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

The stratified beds outcropping in San Pedro Valley seem to have 
the same general relation to stream deposits as those at San Simon. 
Except where they have been exposed by recent erosion they are 
buried beneath stream deposits 1 whose accumulation has apparently 
obliterated every trace of the ancient lake topography. Though the 
section of the railroad well at Benson (fig. 9) is not given definitely 
enough to permit positive conclusions, it suggests that the stratified 
beds are underlain by stream deposits. 

Beds in the Ray quadrangle. — In the vicinity of Ray, Ariz., on the 
south side of Gila River, near the mouth of the San Pedro, stratified 
beds occur which were evidently laid down at the bottom of a lake or 
other body of standing water. These beds comprise part of the val- 
ley fill and are overlain and probably also underlain by stream de- 
posits. 2 

Correlation. — The buried clay beds of Sulphur Spring and San 
Simon valleys, the outcropping strata of tuff and clay in San Simon 
Valley, the extensively exposed series of clay, sandstone, diatoma- 
ceous earth, tuff, and gypsum in San Pedro Valley, the stratified beds 
in the Ray quadrangle, and possibly the buried clay bed in San Ber- 
nardino Valley indicate deposition at the bottom of a lake or other 
body of standing water. So far as known they have similar relations 
to the rock troughs and to the stream deposits, and it is not unlikely 
that they are of the same age and were produced by general condi- 
tions that affected all southeastern Arizona. 

YOUNGER LAKE DEPOSITS. 

Stratified lake beds. — In the north basin of Sulphur Spring Valley, 
upon the clay bed just described as probably of lake origin, rests a 
more recently deposited mantle of clay, sand, and gravel, which is 
shown by many well sections and natural and artificial exposures 
to consist of ordinary stream deposits. Superimposed on the stream 
deposits are the ancient beaches, which remain to-day almost per- 
fectly preserved. While the beaches were being formed by the waves 
along the shore, sedimentation must have been taking place over the 
submerged area. 

Except near its borders the interior of the barren flat is underlain 
by a homogeneous, fine-grained plastic clay, such as might have been 
deposited at the bottom of a permanent lake, though it might also 
perhaps have been deposited during temporary shallow submergences, 
such as the flat occasionally experiences at present. At a number 
of points in the interior of the flat holes were bored to a depth of 12 
feet, but in none of these was anything except the homogeneous 

i Antisell, Thomas, Explorations and surveys for a railroad from Mississippi River to Pacific Ocean, 
1853-56, vol. 7, 1857, pt. 2, Geol. Rept., pp. 143-144. 
2 Ransome, F. L., and Umplcby, J. B., unpublished data. 



GEOLOGY. 63 

plastic clay found. As the flat contains no natural outcrop and no 
artificial excavation, there is little opportunity to study the stratifica- 
tion or lamination of this clay. It may reasonably be supposed that, 
to a certain depth, this clay represents sedimentation in the lake 
which formed the beaches. If, as is not unlikely, the clay beneath 
the flat is several hundred feet thick and belongs to the same great 
body of clay that was penetrated in the deep well at Willcox, only a 
small part of this total thickness can be correlated with the beaches 
and ascribed to the last submergence. 

Near the margin of the flat and in the zone between the flat and the 
beaches the strata revealed in borings and in numerous artificial and 
natural exposures consist chiefly of alternating layers of sand and 
clay, which change rapidly from place to place and thus differ radi- 
cally from typical even-bedded and well-assorted lake sediments. 
The only locality in which were found beds approachmg the laminated 
appearance of typical lake sediments is along the extreme northeastern 
border of the flat, in sees. 26 and 27, T. 14 S., R. 25 E., where about 4 
feet of soft laminated beds of clay, sand, and alkali outcrop along the 
sides of one of the gullies leading to the flat. (See PI. VII, C, p. 42.) 

Thoroughly stratified beds are not commonly found beneath the 
sloping marginal parts of an ancient lake bottom where the shallow 
waters were agitated by waves, shore currents, and incoming floods. 
The apparent scarcity of typical lake beds is perhaps adequately 
explained by the total absence of exposures in the parts of the lake 
remote from the shore. 

Beach materials. — The beaches and beach ridges of the ancient lake 
are built chiefly out of pebbles that are more or less water worn and 
are covered with a gray coat of lime carbonate. In localities where 
the waves found few pebbles, as, for example, southeast of Servoss 
station, particles of caliche, or white hardpan, were rounded into 
pebbles and used in building the beach. 

The gravelly character of the beaches is illustrated in Plate VI, B 
and (p. 36). An excellent cross section of a beach is exposed a 
mile northeast of Cochise in a wash following an abandoned railway 
cut between the railroad and the wagon road leading from Cochise to 
Willcox. In cross section the beach here forms a lens several rods 
long and about 4 feet in maximum thickness. It is composed of 
smooth pebbles of different sizes, averaging perhaps the size of a 
hen's egg, cemented into a conglomerate by lime carbonate. 

Lagoon deposits. — In some localities swamps or lagoons were formed 
between the beach ridge and the mainland. These shallow but shel- 
tered strips of water were gradually filled with vegetable matter and 
fine-grained sediments contributed by different agencies. The largest 
deposit of this kind is south of Croton Springs, in sees. 6 and 7, T. 15 
S., R. 24 E. 



64 WATEE RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

WIND DEPOSITS. 

The wind deposits east and north of the flat consist of sand and clay, 
the sand greatly predominating. So far as known they rest on the 
stream deposits and ancient beach gravels. They probably attain a 
maximum thickness of 100 feet in the highest ridges, but their average 
thickness is much less. As the barren flat is underlain almost exclu- 
sively by clay, it is probable that most of the sand was supplied by 
the waves of the ancient lake. The clay was probably derived from 
the flat after the lake became dry. 

The deposits of clay are all near the flat. For the most part they 
consist of low ridges or mounds at its very margin. The sand has in 
general been carried farther. This difference is due chiefly to the 
fact that the wind can drive sand more readily than clay; it may 
be due in part to a difference in the length of time that the wind has 
had possession of each material. Plate VII, A (p. 42), shows an 
eroded bank at the margin, the lower part of which consists of wind- 
blown clay and the upper part of wind-blown sand. The small ter- 
race along the line of contact between the two materials shows that 
the wind is removing the sand more rapidly than the clay. 

As the wind can handle only comparatively small grains, the wind 
deposits are free from coarse material such as gravel. On the tops of 
some of the sand hills in this valley there are numerous stones of 
different sizes, but these were all transported to their present position 
by man, as is shown by their polished or fractured surfaces. Crusts 
of lime carbonate have also formed near the surface since the depo- 
sition of the sand, and in some places these have been broken, pro- 
ducing hardpan pebbles or rocks. The sand and clay are not com- 
pletely sorted. The soil in much of the sand-hill area consists of 
sandy loam rather than of sand, and the clay hills contain a gritty 
admixture. 

The sand is gray, and in some places is firmly cemented. The 
clayey deposits are commonly reddish brown. Both sand and clay 
are indistinctly stratified and cross-bedded. (See PI. VII, A.) 

More or less wind-blown material is widely distributed over the 
valley, but the limits shown on Plate I embrace only the area in 
which wind deposits occur as a definite formation with characteristic 
wind topography. An area of several square miles in the northern 
part of T. 16 S., R. 25 E., especially in sees. 3, 4, 9, 10, 16, and 17 and 
adjacent tracts, between Allaire's ranch and Sulphur Springs, has a 
sandy loam soil beneath which lies a formation of gray sand and grit. 
This formation is rather homogeneous throughout and is commonly 
cemented by calcium carbonate, to which it owes its gray appearance. 
In some places it reaches a thickness of 20 feet and in well sections 
is seen to rest on typical reddish stream deposits. This formation 
is distinctly different from ordinary stream deposits and has the 



GEOLOGY. 65 

appearance of a wind deposit, but in some places it contains small 
pebbles which it is difficult to believe were transported even by 
storm winds. 

DEPOSITS MADE BY GROUND WATER. 

Caliche. — In many parts of the valley a layer of caliche is en- 
countered, generally about 2 or 3 feet below the surface. It consists 
of ordinary valley fill, which is firmly cemented and to some extent 
replaced by lime carbonate and other precipitates. It is best de- 
veloped beneath the slopes bordering the ranges that contain an 
abundance of limestone, but it is also found in localities where the 
adjacent mountains consist entirely of granitic and porphyritic rocks. 
Plate X, B (p. 60), shows caliche on the slope east of Douglas as it 
has been exposed in grading a wagon road. 

Throughout most of the valley the soil at the surface contains 
abundant lime carbonate. Only in soils that are exceptionally well 
drained, such as the porous soils of the sand-hill area and the soils 
of certain eroded slopes, has the lime carbonate been leached out. 
Fortunately for agriculture, within the first foot or two of the surface 
the lime carbonate is not sufficiently abundant to cement the soil 
appreciably, but below this depth it is much more abundant. In 
some localities it forms a layer almost as hard as limestone; more 
commonly it has not developed into a rock, but has made the subsoil 
harder than ordinary soil. The hard layer is generally not more than 
a few feet thick. 

Downward the caliche gradually becomes softer, and at consider- 
able depth the amount of lime carbonate is usually much less. The 
layers of "cement" reported by drillers at various depths (for exam- 
ple, those shown in PL IX and Hg. 8) are probably at least in part 
buried layers of caliche that were formed at the surface long ago. 

The caliche has a definite relation to the surface, but it has no 
relation to the ground-water level, either present or past. It occurs 
within a few feet of the surface, both where the ground water is shal- 
low and where it is at depths of several hundred feet. Much has 
been written about caliche, but the exact processes by which it is 
produced are not yet well understood. It is evidently formed by 
precipitation of lime carbonate dissolved in water in the ground. As 
it is formed near the surface the precipitation is probably due to 
evaporation of this water. However, the lime carbonate is not in 
general derived from the main body of ground water because water 
can not be lifted by capillarity through a vertical distance of much 
more than 10 feet. A portion of the water that is poured in floods 
over the slopes seeps only a short distance into the ground and is 
eventually evaporated without reaching the ground-water level. 
This flood water dissolves some of the lime carbonate over which it 
82209°— wsp 320—13 5 



66 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

flows, and when it evaporates it must leave its load of lime carbonate 
in the soil near the surface. The caliche is probably composed of 
this lime carbonate. The fact that caliche does not generally occur 
at the surface but rather a few feet below it appears to be due to 
downward leaching, especially within the zone in which carbonic 
acid, necessary to dissolve lime carbonate, is supplied by decaying 
vegetation. 

Allcali.— Soluble salts, such as sodium carbonate, sodium sulphate, 
and sodium chloride, form a considerable proportion of the deposits 
that underlie the low areas in both basins of Sulphur Spring Valley. 
Like caliche, these salts are accumulated near the surface, and, 
like caliche, deposits formed at the surface may later become deeply 
buried. Unlike caliche, these salts are derived largely from the main 
ho&y of ground water and they do not generally accumulate where 
the ground water is too deep to be drawn to the surface by capillary 
action. Alkali that is found in quantity in localities where the ground 
water can not reach the surface by capillarity has generally accumu- 
lated at a time when the ground water stood higher. 

Alkali differs from lime carbonate in being much more soluble, and 
for that reason it is leached out of an upland soil where the lime car- 
bonate accumulates. The subject of alkali is more fully treated on 
pages 160-181. 

Sulphides. — The barren flat is underlain to an unknown depth by 
a jet-black deposit. Holes were bored in many different parts of the 
flat and everywhere the black material w T as encountered. At several 
points near the north end of the flat the upper surface of the black 
material was found practically to coincide with the ground-water 
level, which was approximately 4 feet below the surface. In the 
interior of the flat, where the clay is so fine grained that no definite 
water level exists, the black material was not encountered until 
depths of 9 to 11 feet were reached. At one point near the east 
margin the change of color occurred at a depth of 9 J feet, though the 
water level stood only 4 feet below the surface. At another point 
near the east margin the change of color occurred at a depth of 9 feet, 
though the water level was 5 J feet below the surface. In both of 
the borings near the east margin the color was dark blue instead of 
the characteristic black. 

As shown in figure 10, the black color is not associated with any 
particular kind of material. In the interior only fine-grained clay 
was found, but near the north margin strata of sand were penetrated, 
which are as black as the clay, although when the impurities are 
washed out the sand is found to consist of granules of clear quartz. 
The black materials give off an odor of hydrogen sulphide, and this 
odor is intensified when the materials are treated with acid. When 



GEOLOGY. 



67 



brought into contact with air, the color changes rapidly from black 
to light yellow. The black substance also contains organic matter. 
The acid test proves the presence of sulphides. These sulphides 
give the black color. When brought into contact with the oxygen 
of the air, they become oxidized and their color is destroyed. The 
sulphides may be derived from sulphur in the organic matter or 
may result from the reduction of sulphates through the agency of 
organic matter. Considerable quantities of sulphates have been 
deposited in the beds underlying the flat, as is indicated by the soil 
analyses given on page 172 and by the water analyses given on page 
154. A certain amount of organic matter is generally embedded 
with the sediments laid down at the bottom of a lake, where it is 



Depth below 
surface 
Feet 1 


2 


3 


4 


5 




KE-L^ 


Yellowish- 
gray clay 

Yellow sand 


M 


Brown clay 


^£Ef^= 


Brown clay 
Yellow sand 


^j=?d 




m 










-~~- 


Water level 


Black"" sand 


Yellow sand 


8P 


Dense 

yellowish-gray 
clay 


SB 








Hater level 




Water level 

Black sand 


i 


Dense black 
clay 


Yellowish- 
gray clay 


Yellowish- 
gray clay 






BE 




~~~ 








\ 


i= 


/''' 


=E 


Dense black - 
clay 


m 






\ 


Dense black 
clay 


il~Ep 





Figure 10.— Sections of borings on the barren flat. Nos. 1, 2, and 3, near north margin of flat; 4, near 
center of flat; 5, in southern part of flat. 

protected by the water from complete oxidation. Below water 
level the sulphides are preserved by the ground water, but above 
the water level they have come into contact with tke air and are 
oxidized. The upper surface of the black substance probably 
coincides approximately with the water table. 

The mud surrounding Sulphur Springs and Croton Springs and 
composing the knoll springs of the Croton Springs group is also 
black and has an odor of hydrogen sulphide, which is intensified 
when acid is applied. This mud no doubt owes its blackness 
chiefly to the presence of sulphides, although it also contains much 
dark-colored organic matter. The organic matter and the constantly 
renewed supplies of water together tend to prevent the oxidation 
of the black mud, 



68 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Knoll spring deposits. — The knolls that have been built over 
several of the springs of the Croton Springs group contain very- 
little substance precipitated by the escaping water. They are 
composed chiefly of roots and other organic matter embedded in 
mud, which rests on a deposit of gray sand. The spring water has 
been instrumental in two ways in holding the dust and clay that 
was driven thither by the wind. First, it produced vegetation, 
which broke the force of the wind and allowed the dust and sand to 
settle, and, second, it wet the deposits of dust and sand, and thus 
secured them against further wind action. By supplying the mois- 
ture necessary for plant growth it produced the organic matter which 
composes a large part of the knoll, deposits, and by covering the 
dead roots, stems, and leaves it protected them from decomposition 
and allowed them to accumulate. Hydrogen sulphide in the water 
probably assisted in preserving the vegetable matter from decom- 
position. (See pp. 42-43.) 

LAVA BEDS. 

Dark vesicular basaltic lava lies at the surface in a low mound or 
mesa 2 miles east of Douglas. It is exposed over most of the NE. J 
sec. 7, T. 24 S., R. 28 E., and on small adjacent tracts. Similar beds 
of lava occur in the mountainous area farther east and cover a large 
part of San Bernardino Valley east of the mountains. Dark basaltic 
vesicular lavas are also found in considerable abundance in the foot- 
hills of the Galiuro Mountains west of Hooker's ranch. 

In a well 884 feet deep at the pumping plant of the Douglas public 
waterworks, situated in the northeastern part of the city, the drill 
struck a bed of lava which is described as being black and glassy but 
not difficult to penetrate. It is also said to have given off a bad odor. 
This bed of lava was struck about 340 feet below the surface and was 
found to be approximately 100 feet thick. Valley fill, consisting 
chiefly of stream deposits, appears to lie both above and below the lava. 

In a well at the county hospital northwest of Douglas, in the NW. J 
sec. 3, T. 24 S., R. 27 E., a bed of lava 53 feet thick was struck at a 
depth of 299 feet. The core brought up in drilling revealed vesicular 
basaltic lava similar to that found in the outcrop east of Douglas 
and in the extensive exposures of San Bernardino Valley. The nu- 
merous spherical cavities, which range in general between several 
millimeters and a centimeter in diameter, are partly filled with light- 
colored secondary minerals. The section shown in Plate IX (p. 52), 
which is based on the log furnished by the driller, F. O. Mackey, shows 
that the deposits both above and below the lava consist of ordinary 
stream deposits. Immediately overlying the lava 10 feet of ' ' cement " 
is reported, the lower 4 feet of which is designated "hard cement." 
A core of the formation at the contact between the "hard cement" 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 320 PLATE XI 




A. HILL OF LIMESTONE NEARLY SUBMERGED BY LAVA. 





■ i— 



m_M 






B. LAVA BED RESTING ON STREAM DEPOSITS. 





m 



C. TYPICAL WIND-BUILT RIDGE. 



GEOLOGY. 69 

and the lava consists of a reddish calcareous cement in which are 
embedded pebbles and fragments of lava which in places are stained 
yellow. The deposits immediately below the lava are reported to 
be intensely red. 

Over a large part of San Bernardino Valley the lava lies at the sur- 
face, and in many places it can be seen resting on ordinary stream 
deposits. For a foot or more below the lava the sediments have been 
somewhat altered by heat and present a pink color. Plate XI, B, 
shows a bed of lava resting on ordinary stream deposits in the valley 
of Silver Creek, a short distance east of the divide between Sulphur 
Spring Valley and San Bernardino Valley. Plate XI, A, shows a low 
hill of Paleozoic limestone in San Bernardino Valley surrounded and 
partly submerged by a lava flow. A deep gorge on the opposite side 
of the hill has been cut through the lava, exposing underlying stream 
deposits and limestones which were entirely covered by lava but 
which have again been exposed by the erosion of the gorge. The fore- 
ground of this picture gives some conception of the amount of weath- 
ering that has taken place since the outpouring of the lava. The soil 
is very meager and the vegetation is accordingly scant, but the surficial 
part of the lava has nevertheless been greatly altered by the weather 
since its extrusion. The time required to cut the gorge and produce 
the amount of weathering shown was long in the ordinary sense, 
although brief according to geologic standards. 

All nine of the flowing wells on Slaughter's ranch, in San Bernardino 
Valley, are reported to have penetrated a sheet of lava at some level 
above the clay bed described on page 60. Several feet of sediments 
immediately below the lava were found to be red, but the sediments 
immediately above the lava did not show any unusual color. 

A lava bed is necessarily younger than the sediments on which it 
rests, but may be either older or younger than the overlying sediments. 
If it was poured out on the surface and later became buried beneath 
sedimentary deposits, it is, of course, older than these deposits; if, on 
the other hand, it did not reach the surface but was injected between 
two sedimentary beds, it is younger than both and may be younger 
than any of the beds that occur above it. The vesicular or spongy 
texture of the bed penetrated in the well at the county hospital indi- 
cates that this lava was poured out on an ancient land surface, for 
if it had been intruded beneath the beds that now rest on it the pres- 
sure would have been too great to allow gas bubbles to form. The 
upper contact of this bed also seems to indicate that the lava was 
spread over the surface, was later weathered and eroded to some 
extent, and was finally buried beneath stream deposits which included 
pebbles derived from the lava. Moreover, if the lava had been in- 
truded the overlying deposits would have been altered to as red a 



70 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

color as the underlying deposits. The lava encountered in the San 
Bernardino wells was probably also poured over an ancient surface 
and was later buried beneath stream deposits, for if it had been in- 
truded beneath the beds that now rest on it these beds would have 
been altered by the heat of the lava and would show the same red 
color as the sediments immediately below the lava. 

If the lava in the county hospital wells represents a surface flow it 
is without much doubt older than the lava at the surface 2 miles east 
of Douglas, for it seems probable that the 300 feet of stream deposits 
that lie above the lava at the county hospital were nearly all laid down 
before the lava east of Douglas was extruded. The surface bed and 
the buried bed at Slaughter's ranch give still stronger evidence of two 
epochs of volcanic activity, for the surface lavas in that locality are 
shown by outcrops to rest on stream deposits. 

The basaltic lava in the region west of Hooker's ranch appears to be 
much younger than the Tertiary acidic lavas. No evidence of its age 
relative to the valley fill was discovered, but the probabilities favor 
its correlation with the rocks of Douglas and San Bernardino Valley. 

GYPSUM DEPOSITS. 

Several small deposits of gypsum occur at the surface about 5 miles 
east of Douglas. They lie on the upper part of the slope near the 
mountains and are in close relation to a chain of rock hills which ex- 
tends westward from the mountains. The gypsum is in the form of 
cream-colored powder with no large crystals. It contains no grit nor 
pebbles but has an admixture of lime carbonate which effervesces 
freely when treated with acid. One of the deposits which hugs the 
east side of a small draw forms a strip several hundred feet wide and 
perhaps a mile long, and has a maximum thickness of about 6 feet. 
Some of the other deposits show a less definite relation to the topog- 
raphy. Where the base of any deposit is exposed the powdery 
material is seen to rest on ordinary pebbly stream deposits. The 
gypsum is scraped up and hauled in wagons to Douglas, but in the 
near future a small calcining plant is to be installed at the deposits. 

The origin of the gypsum was not definitely ascertained. No rock 
formation with interbedded gypsum was observed in the region and 
the gypsiferous locality lies so far above the ground-water level and 
is so well drained that the gypsum can not have been formed by 
deposition from evaporating waters since the present topography has 
come into existence. Moreover, the area of its occurrence is small 
and its influence on the quality of the ground waters is likewise 
very local. Except in this small area east of Douglas and in the low 
alkali tracts, gypseous deposits are rare in Sulphur Spring Valley. 

It is significant that these deposits are in close relation to rock 
hills which consist in large part of limestone with injected bodies of 



QEOLOGY. 71 

lava. In regard to the formation of gypsum Adams * makes the follow- 
ing statement : 

Gypsum may be formed in the laboratory by the chemical action of sulphuric acid 
on carbonate of lime. In nature this reaction may take place in a number of ways. 
Lime is quite universally distributed in the rocks. Unimportant quantities of 
sulphuric acid form in nature by the oxidation of sulphurous acid and hydrogen 
sulphide. Sulphurous acid is known to escape from volcanoes and about fumaroles. 

Possibly the gypsum east of Douglas has been formed by the action 
of volcanic products on the limestone through which they were forced. 
The foul odor given off by the lava in the Douglas city well may lend 
a little additional support to such a theory. 

The relation of the gypsum to the watercourses suggests that it has 
been washed to its present position by running water, but its freedom 
from coarse particles and its tendency to occur on the east side of 
watercourses suggest wind action. Perhaps wind and water have 
cooperated in bringing the material to the localities where it now lies. 

GEOLOGIC HISTORY. 
EARLY HISTORY OF THE ROCK TROUGH. 

The age and mode of origin of the rock trough occupied by Sulphur 
Spring Valley are largely matters of conjecture, the record having 
been buried beneath the great mass of sediments that form the 
valley fill. 

Gilbert's theory of the origin of the valleys of the Basin Range 
system is stated in the folio whig brief quotation: 2 

The ridges of the system occupy loci of upheaval and are not mere residua of denuda- 
tion; the valleys of the system are hot valleys of erosion but mere intervals between 
lines of maximum uplift. * * * The movements of the strata by which ridges 
have been produced have been in chief part vertical along planes of fracture and have 
not involved great horizontal compression. 

That Gilbert meant to apply this theory to the mountain region 
of Arizona, including the drainage basin of Sulphur Spring Valley, 
is definitely shown by his statement that in the Chiricahua Range 
(including the Dos Cabezas Range) "the structure is monoclinal, 
demonstrably due to faulting," and that the structure is presumably 
the same hi the other ranges of the region. 3 

This theory that the rock troughs are formed essentially by the 
tilting of great blocks into which the earth's crust has been broken 
is supported by later investigations and is generally accepted at 
present as the correct explanation. However, it does not preclude 
the possibility that in any given valley folding and erosion may have 
been important in producing the rock trough. 

i Adams, G. I., Gypsum deposits in the United States: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 223, 1904, p. 15. 

2 Gilbert, G. K., U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3, 1875, pp. 41, 42. 

3 Idem, p. 517. 



72 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

There is great uncertainty as to the age of the trough. The 
youngest sedimentary strata known to have been radically deformed 
are of early Cretaceous age. The rugged topography of the ranges 
makes it probable that these ranges have been lifted in part in late 
Tertiary or in Quaternary time, for otherwise they would by this time 
have been reduced through weathering and erosion to more subdued 
forms. In all probability the elevation of the ranges has proceeded 
step by step during an extended period, and the filling of the inter- 
vening trough was begun long before the last elevating movement 
took place. Earthquakes in this region since the coming of the white 
man suggest that the deformation may still be in progress, but the 
valley fill was nowhere seen to be faulted, as it is in many places in 
the similar valleys of Utah. 

EPOCHS OF STREAM WORK. 

The age of the oldest stream deposits that lie on the floor of the 
rock trough is as uncertain as" the age of the trough itself. In the 
absence of definite evidence the Gila conglomerate has been tenta- 
tively assigned to the Quaternary by Gilbert, Ransome, and Lindgren. 
As to the age of the valley fill of the region under consideration, 
Ransome states: "It is possible that some of the unconsolidated 
material penetrated by deep wells in Sulphur Spring Valley may be 
Tertiary, but there is as yet no evidence justifying the separating of 
these deposits from the overlying Quaternary accumulations." In 
the present investigation no facts have been discovered that would 
allow a more definite statement. Existing evidence indicates that the 
diatomaceous earth in San Pedro Valley belongs to the same period 
as the rest of the valley fill and that it lies stratigraphically above the 
oldest stream deposits of that valley, but this relation has not been 
definitely proved. About 34 fossil species were identified byD.B. Ward 
in this earth. According to A. M. Edwards, who also examined the 
fossils, most of the species represented are still living, but one living 
species is found among the fossils of a Miocene formation and another 
among the fossils of an upper Pliocene formation. On the strength 
of this fossil evidence and in view of the general probabilities, Blake * 
favored the hypothesis that the diatomaceous earth and the entire 
stratified lake or marine series of San Pedro Valley is late Tertiary, 
although he recognized the inconclusive character of the evidence 
and the possibility that they are Quaternary. 

In southeastern Arizona the Quaternary period includes two 
epochs of stream work — an epoch of aggradation followed by an 
epoch of degradation. In the first epoch the streams filled the rock 

1 Blake, W. P., Arizona diatomite: Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., vol. 14, pt. 1, 1903, pp. 107-1U; Lake 
Quiburis, an ancient Pliocene lake in Arizona: Univ. Arizona Monthly, vol. 4, No. 4, February, 1902. 



GEOLOGY. 73 

troughs with sediments wrested from the mountains; in the second 
epoch they attacked these valley deposits and transported them 
seaward. In the hrst epoch the streams built up smooth, gently 
inclined debris slopes; in the second they cut gullies and gorges into 
these slopes, thereby converting nearly level plains into rugged hill 
country. Such a change in the work done by streams may result 
(1) from changes in the elevation of the region relative to sea level 
or some other base level, (2) from changes in the rainfall and other 
climatic conditions, or (3) from the normal development of an erosion 
cycle. 

The mountain tracts were elevated more rapidly than the processes 
of degradation could reduce them. This may have been due to a 
rapid rate of uplift, to a slow rate of degradation resulting from 
unfavorable climatic conditions, or to both. The elevation of the 
mountains threw the streams out of adjustment. From the mountain 
tops to the bottoms of the rock troughs they had very steep grades, 
but thence to the ocean they had only slight grades or possibly no 
grade at all. Consequently the loads which they gathered in their 
mountain courses were deposited in the valleys as valley fill. If no 
further changes in level had occurred and if the streams had been 
allowed to work on unmolested, the consummation of their work 
would inevitably have been a peneplain — that is, the region would 
finally have been reduced approximately to sea level. As the 
mountains would have become lowered and furnished less sediment, 
the streams would have begun to cut into the valley fill. This expla- 
nation does not, however, account adequately for the erosion phenom- 
ena of southeastern Arizona, for the erosion has been too great and 
too rapid, especially in view of the still youthful aspect of the moun- 
tains, to be fully explained in this way. Moreover, the erosion 
features have not been developed simultaneously over the whole 
region, as would be expected under this explanation, but are the 
result of headward erosion — a fact plainly shown in Arivaipa Valley 
and in numerous other valleys whose drainage is tributary to the 
Gila. 

Change in climate may cause a change in the character of stream 
work. The bolson valleys of the arid West would probably not 
have been developed in a humid climate, and if this arid region were 
in the future given a copious rainfall the resulting large streams, 
with their greatly augmented carrying power, would no doubt dissect 
the valley fill. In view of the present aridity, however, the climatic 
hypothesis- seems inadequate to explain the great amount of erosion 
that has taken place in the debris-filled valleys of southeastern 
Arizona. 



74 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY; ARIZONA, 

In his study of the Gila conglomerate, Gilbert 1 came to the follow- 
ing conclusions : 

To account for the period of accumulation there must be assumed some condition 
that has ceased to exist. Such a condition might be either a barrier somewhere below 
the region in question, determining the discharge of the water at a higher level than 
at present, or it might be a general depression of the region, in virtue of which the 
ocean (now 300 miles away) became a virtual barrier. With either hypothesis, a change 
of more than 1,000 feet must be considered. 

The erosion of the valley fill of southeastern Arizona began a long 
time ago, as is witnessed by the mature dissection of some of the 
valleys, 2 but it was brought about by the headward erosion of the 
gullies belonging to the Gila or some other drainage system, and 
any given area was not affected until the gullies were eroded back 
to that area. Most of Sulphur Spring Valley has not yet felt the 
effects of the erosion cycle. 

A bodily lifting of the region a thousand feet or more would not 
have affected the topographic relations in the north basin, for example, 
and would not have interfered with the stream-building process that 
was going on. The floods poured from the mountains into Sulphur 
Spring Valley are still building up their slopes essentially as they 
would be doing if other bolson valleys of the region had not been 
dissected. 

However, the work of erosion has been carried up the Arivaipa; 
the north end of Sulphur Spring Valley has already been attacked; 
and a small area that once belonged to this valley has been captured 
by the Arivaipa drainage system and is now suffering vigorous 
erosion. 

LAKE EPOCHS. 

A lake existed in the north basin of Sulphur Spring Valley in 
comparatively recent geologic time, and a larger lake probably existed 
in an earlier epoch. Apparently the succession of events was some- 
what as follows: 

During the early history of the rock trough the streams brought 
sediments from the mountains and deposited them in the valley. 
Then a part of the north basin and possibly also a part of the south 
basin became submerged, and sediments settled at the bottom of a 
large body of standing water, while stream deposition continued on 
the higher tracts that were not submerged. In the course of time 
the body of standing water disappeared or nearly disappeared, 
either by drying up or by being drained, and stream deposits were 
laid down to a considerable depth where the water had stood. By 
the close of this epoch of stream deposition the valley slopes had 

> Gilbert, Q. K., U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3, 1875, p. 541. 

» See, for example, Ransome, F. L., Globe folio (No. Ill), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904. 



GEOLOGY. 75 

been built up almost to their present height and form. Then came 
another submergence, during which the lowest parts of the north 
basin were covered by a lake which remained for only a brief time as 
compared with the earlier epoch of submergence, but which was, 
nevertheless, in existence long enough to build large beach ridges. 
Since this lake dried up only a small amount of stream work but a 
more conspicuous amount of wind work has been accomplished. 

The early submergence may have been due to a lake that was 
produced by an epoch of humid climate and was confined to the north 
basin, The south basin may then, as now, have drained into Yaqui 
River. On the other hand, it is possible that the body of water in 
this valley was an arm of a .larger sea that extended also into San 
Simon and San Pedro valleys. The diatomaceous earth of San 
Pedro Valley contains fresh-water fossils, and also fossils of species 
that have been found only in marine beds. 1 The marine fossils sug- 
gest that since the rock troughs of southeastern Arizona have come 
into existence and have been partly filled with sediments the region 
may have been so far depressed that the troughs were temporarily 
invaded by the ocean. With this hypothesis the subsequent great 
elevation of the region relative to the sea would account for the 
erosion cycle now in progress. 

The last lake must have owed its existence to a more humid climate 
than prevails at present. When the climate again became arid the 
lake dried up. As already stated, a small area which once drained 
into the north basin of Sulphur Spring Valley now discharges its 
floods into the Arivaipa, but if this diverted drainage were returned 
to Sulphur Spring Valley the change would certainly not be ade- 
quate to restore the ancient lake. 

The ancient beaches remain almost unchanged since the lake 
withdrew from them. If the trivial postlacus trine changes are com- 
pared with the work represented by the filling of the valley to a 
depth of 200 or 300 feet since the deposition of the clay bed at Will- 
cox, it becomes evident that the period since the disappearance of 
the lake that made the beaches was many times shorter than the 
time since the early submergence which produced the buried clay 
bed. If the postlacustrine changes are compared with the work 
done since the rock trough began to fill with sediments, the post- 
lacustrine epoch appears still more brief. In this respect the 
ancient lake of Sulphur Spring Valley accords with Lake Bonne- 
ville and the other ancient lakes of the arid West, which are believed 
to be of Pleistocene age and to have been formed at the same time 
and by the same climatic change which caused the great continental 
glaciers. 

i Blake, W. P., Arizona diatomite: Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., vol. 14, pt. 1, 1903, pp. 108-110. 



76 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Huntington ! has shown that since the close of the glacial epoch 
and within historic times there have been important variations in 
humidity, and he believes that a given climatic change was not con- 
fined to one region, but affected the entire world at the same time. 
He cites a basin on the Bolivian Plateau in South America which 
contains an ancient strand lying 150 feet above the level of the pres- 
ent shallow salt lake and yet bearing evidence of having been traversed 
by man during a time when the lake was at or near the level of the 
strand. 2 This change in the lake level appears to involve at least as 
great a climatic change as is indicated by the beaches of Sulphur 
Spring Valley and suggests the possibility that the last ancient lake 
of Sulphur Spring Valley may be postglacial. However, in the ab- 
sence of definite evidence and in view of the apparent accordance of 
the lake features of this valley with those of the recognized Pleisto- 
cene lakes of the West, the last lake epoch of Sulphur Spring Valley 
must be tentatively referred to the Pleistocene. 

The Pleistocene epoch included several periods during which sheets 
of glacial drift were spread over portions of the continent. These 
periods of glaciation were separated by intervals of mild climate, dur- 
ing which the ice sheets disappeared. If the cold, humid conditions 
that produced the glaciers also produced the ancient lakes of the West, 
as is generally supposed, then there must have been several lake 
epochs, each contemporaneous with a glacial epoch, and the valley fill 
of a typical bolson valley may be expected to include lake beds at 
different horizons, separated by stream deposits, each lake bed cor- 
responding in age to a sheet of glacial drift. 

In regard to the age of the successive ice epochs Calvin states : 3 

The oldest glacial deposit in which the accumulating effects of continuous time is 
recorded is the Kansan; the youngest is the Wisconsin; and between the two the 
differences in age seem almost immeasurable. Comparing the weathering and erosion 
in the central, intermorainic part of the Wisconsin with the corresponding evidences 
of change in the Kansan, the differences must be expressed by a number greater 
than one hundred * * *. Making every possible allowance, there is no escape 
from the conclusion that the Pleistocene was a long, long period, compared with 
which the recent period, or postglacial time, would have to be represented by a very 
small fraction. 

If the valley fill of Sulphur Spring Valley was deposited since the 
beginning of the Pleistocene and the ancient beaches were formed at 
the same time as the Wisconsin glacial drift sheet, then it is possible 
that the buried clay bed struck in the deep wells at Willcox was 
formed at the same time as one of the older drift sheets — for 

1 Huntington, Ellsworth, The pulse of Asia, 1907. 

2 Huntington, Ellsworth, The climate of the historic past: Monthly Weather Review, U. S. Weather 
Bureau, 1908, p. 448. 

8 Calvin, Samuel, Present phases of the Pleistocene problem in Iowa (presidential address): Bull. Geol. 
Soc. America, vol. 20, 1909, p. 152. 



GEOLOGY. 77 

example, the Kansan. The fact should, however, not be overlooked 
that these suggested correlations are wholly hypothetical and are as 
yet not supported by any definite proofs. 

EPOCHS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY. 

After sediments washed from the mountains had accumulated in 
the rock trough to a depth of a good many hundred feet a basic lava 
was poured over the surface in the vicinity of Douglas. When the 
lava reached the surface its gases were released, but it cooled so rap- 
idly that it became a solid mass before all the gas had escaped. Hence 
the lava is scoriaceous — that is, it contains spherical cavities formed 
by the bubbles of gas. After the lava had solidified it became grad- 
ually covered with sediments which the streams continued to throw 
down, until it was buried beneath about 300 feet of stream deposits 
and the surface of the valley had been built up almost to its present 
elevation and contour. Then apparently another sheet of the same 
kind of lava was poured over the surface in the same part of the val- 
ley. Since the last extrusion enough time ba^s elapsed for the lava to 
become considerably weathered near the surface, but not enough for 
it to cool off entirely, as is shown by the temperature of the well waters 
in the vicinity, nor for it to be entirely covered by stream deposits. 

The amount of lava extruded in Sulphur Spring Valley in the Qua- 
ternary period — that is, during the time that the valley fill was de- 
posited — is insignificant as compared to the amount brought to the 
surface or near the surface during earlier periods. The small Qua- 
ternary extrusions in Sulphur Spring Valley were, however, associ- 
ated with much more extensive igneous processes, for in San Bernar- 
dino Valley and at the head of San Simon Valley the Quaternary 
period was characterized by great volcanic activity. 

As the lava beds are remote from the lake beds their relative ages 
can not be determined. The buried lava bed was struck at depths of 
299 and 340 feet; the buried clay bed was struck at a depth of 280 feet 
in Willcox and closer to the surface at one or more points nearer the 
alkali flat. The thickness of the material lying above a bed gives 
some measure of its age, and the deposition of 200 feet or more of fine 
sediments must have required a much longer time than the extrusion 
of a bed of lava. The volcanic ash found in the stratified beds of San 
Simon and San Pedro valleys shows that there was some volcanic 
activity in the region during the submergence in these two valleys, 
but there is no way of correlating this activity with the volcanic activ- 
ity in Sulphur Spring Valley. The last epoch of volcanic activity 
in Sulphur Spring, San Bernardino, and San Simon valleys was so 
recent that the topographic features which it produced have not yet 
been buried nor destroyed by the weather. In this respect the last 
volcanic epoch resembles the last lake epoch. 



78 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

RECENT CHANGES. 

The changes which have been taking place recently and which ap- 
pear to be now going on may be summarized as follows : 

1. Weathering and stream erosion in the mountains, on the upper parts of the 
stream-built slopes, and to some extent on the middle parts of these slopes. 

2. Stream deposition in the lower parts of the valley. 

3. Probable enlargement of the barren flat by wind erosion. 

4. Transportation of wind-borne sediments northeastward from the flat. 

5. Deposition of caliche on the slopes and concentration of alkali on the flat and 
in other low places. 

6. Stream erosion in a zone surrounding the barren flat. 

7. Stream erosion in the lower course of Whitewater Draw. 

8. Stream erosion and piracy at the north end of the valley. 

RAINFALL. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
RECORDS. 

Rainfall observations have been made for the United States Weather 
Bureau at five points in Sulphur Spring Valley (see PL II, in pocket) 
and at about 10 points in the adjacent mountains. The records for 
some of the stations extend over only a brief period or have many 
interruptions, but at several stations observations were made contin- 
uously during many years. The oldest and longest record is that at 
Fort Grant, where observations were made for 32 years, from 1873 
to 1905. Observations were begun at Willcox in 1880, at Bisbee in 
1889, and at Allaire's ranch in 1894. The record at each of these three 
stations is nearly continuous from its beginning to the present time. 
Thus, up to the end of 1910, the Willcox record covers 30 years, the 
Bisbee record 21 years, and the record for Allaire's ranch 16 years. 
At Dragoon Summit (Russelville) observations were made from 1890 
to 1900, at Dragoon station from 1889 to 1905, at Tombstone from 1897 
to the present, and at Cochise from 1899 to the present. The Dragoon 
and Tombstone records, however, show numerous interruptions. At 
Douglas a complete record has been kept since 1904. 

The rainfall records are valuable in furnishing some basis for quan- 
titative estimates of the water supply and for intelligent action in agri- 
cultural undertakings. It is important to know not only the total 
precipitation, but also its fluctuations from year to year, its distribu- 
tion over the different seasons of the year, and whether it falls in pro- 
tracted rains or in heavy showers of brief duration. Very much light 
is thrown on all these questions by the long and faithful records that 
have been kept, and great credit is due to the observers who, without 
pay, have rendered this patriotic service. 

The following tables, compiled from the reports of the United States 
Weather Bureau, give the monthly and annual rainfall records for all 



EAINFALL. 



79 



stations in the valley and adjacent mountains. Throughout this 
paper the term " rainfall" is used to mean all of the precipitation, in- 
cluding: water that fails in the form of snow. 



Monthly and annual rainfall, in inches, for Sulphur Spring Valley and the adjacent 

mountains . 

Allaire's ranch (S. I sec. 28, T. 15 S., R. 25 E.). 
[Elevation, 4,184 feet.] 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


.Dec. 


An- 
nual. 


1894 
















0.98 
2.48 
1.85 
1.56 
2.97 
.57 
.72 
1.93 
2.92 
3.73 
3.32 
3.61 
3.90 
5.65 
2.11 
6. 41 
3.25 


0.18 

2.17 

4.62 

.83 

.84 

1.84 

3.44 

.54 

.32 

1.06 

.21 

1.27 

.04 

1.42 

.64 

.82 

1.79 


0.70 
.51 

3.59 
.02 
.00 
.29 
.16 
.87 
.40 
.00 
.60 
.56 
.17 

1.83 
T. 
.00 
.11 


0.00 

1.51 
.28 
.00 
.55 
.75 
.69 
.45 

1.72 
.00 
.03 

3.12 
.95 

1.67 
.37 
.19 

1.59 


0.87 
.22 
.32 
.07 

1.31 
.11 
.10 
.17 

2.22 
.07 
.79 
.61 

3.08 
.00 

1.28 
.46 
.01 




1895 


6.58 
.18 

1.29 

1.27 
.34 
.22 

1.00 
.36 
.04 
.32 

2.21 
.36 

2.52 
.87 
.17 
.55 


0.05 
.26 
.12 
.06 
.24 
.58 

1.31 
.05 
.54 
.17 

3.77 

1.63 
.55 

1.21 
.82 
.00 


T. 

0.17 
.27 
.40 
.17 
.66 
.51 
.51 

1.32 
.18 

4.11 
.42 
.14 
.48 

1.18 
.12 


T. 
T. 

0.00 
.56 
.47 
.60 
.19 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.12 
.17 
.14 
.31 
.00 
.05 


0.63 

.00 

" T. 

T. 
.00 
.01 
.16 
.08 
.40 
.61 
.00 
.03 
.58 
.04 
T. 
.00 


0.40 

.17 
a T. 
.03 
.25 
T. 
.00 
.02 
.33 
.00 
.62 
.05 
T. 
.01 
.96 
1.08 


1.94 
3.07 
1.77 
4.43 
2.65 
1.60 
5.15 
1.48 
1.11 
2.09 
1.04 
3.16 
2.84 
4.76 
2.91 
1.70 


10. 49 


1896 


14.51 


1897 


5.93 


1898 


12.42 


1899 


7.68 


1900 


8.78 


1901 


12.28 


1902 


10.08 


1903 


8.60 


1904 


8.32 


1905 


22. 04 


1906 

1907 


13. 96 
17.34 


1908 


12.06 


1909 


13.92 


1910 


10.25 






Average 


.77 


.71 


.66 


.23 


.16 


.24 


2.61 


2.82 


1.30 


.58 


.82 


.69 


11.59 



Bisbee. 

[Elevation, 5,500 feet.) 



1889. 
1890. 
1891. 
1892. 
1893. 
1894. 
1895. 
1896. 
1897. 
1898. 
1899. 
1900. 
1901. 
1902. 
1903 . 
1904. 
1905 . 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
1910. 



Average. 



2.34 

.55 

1.64 

.03 

.61 

1.20 

.55 

2.50 

2.57 

.52 

.54 

1.72 

.68 

.30 

.12 

1.12 

1.36 

5.36 

1.09 

.21 



0.27 
1.69 
2.39 

.88 
1.25 

.08 
1.04 

.35 

.26 

.51 
1.41 
2.57 

.00 
1.17 

.40 
5.71 
2.31 

.38 
2.11 
1.18 

.15 



1.21 1.24 1.10 



0.24 

.75 

1.51 

2.05 

1.91 

.00 

.27 

.10 

1.94 

.40 

2.23 



1.71 

T. 

5.26 
1.11 

.48 

.36 
1.52 

.07 



0.15 
.00 
.60 
.00 
.00 
.20 
.23 
.00 
.47 

a. 35 
.97 
.12 
.00 
.00 
.00 

4.04 
.05 

1.03 
.40 
.00 
.07 



42 



0.00 
.72 
.00 
.52 
.00 
.23 
.00 
.05 
.00 
T. 
T. 
.17 
.40 
.43 

1.12 
.00 
.01 

1.67 
.23 
.00 
T. 



27 



0.03 
.31 
.24 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.45 
.18 

1.91 
.25 
T. 
T. 
.30 
.60 
.22 



.02 

T. 

T. 

.78 
.54 



6.07 
.62 
1.37 
5.20 
1.63 
2.02 
4.29 
7.36 
8.86 
4.83 
1.12 
3.11 
.54 
1.20 
2.59 



4.86 
4. G2 
4.51 
5.66 
5.72 



3.80 



0.73 
5.71 

8.55 
2.59 
4.15 
8.73 
4.70 
3.10 
2.95 
3.84 
4.77 
1.38 
2.97 
5.48 
6.28 
5.77 



2.75 

4.97 
8.17 
9.59 
3.22 



4.78 



3.79 

1.73 

.67 

.44 

1.71 

.39 

2.44 

2.35 

3. 14 

2.11 

2.85 

6.54 

.94 

1.64 

.30 

.43 



.74 
1.19 
1.90 

.65 
1.84 



1.80 



0.38 
1.06 

.00 
1.48 

.05 
1.47 
1.12 
7.82 

.52 

.00 
1.69 

T. 
2.56 

.30 

.00 
1.34 



.44 

.96 

T. 

T. 

.24 



1.02 



0.20 
.63 
.00 
.29 
.00 
.00 

2.23 
.40 
.00 

1.01 
.16 

1.31 
.59 

1.55 
.00 
.16 



1.23 

2.93 

.45 

.23 

.61 



.66 



0.29 

1.99 

.48 

.37 

.20 

1.31. 

.48 

.36 

.44 

2.90 

.06 

.28 

.10 

1.85 

a. 15 

1.33 



5.10 

.00 

1.79 

1.50 

.13 



1.00 



20.22 
14.34 

12. 92 
14.79 
17.30 
14.80 
20. 86 
17.59 
25.87 
16.39 
15.78 
15.73 
13. 03 
12.14 

13. 48 



19.98 
23. 59 
21.01 
21.32 
12.85 



17.59 



Bonita (SW. J sec. 2, T. 10 S., It. 23 E.). 
[Elevation, about 4,500 feet.] 



1936 




" 




0.20 
.50 
.45 
.00 
.30 


T. 

.53 

.31 

.00 

.00 


0.00 
.00 
T. 
.25 


2.05 
3.27 
3.87 
2.11 


3.40 
3.59 
2.36 
2.64 


0.30 
.55 
.19 

1.82 


0.00 
1.48 
T. 


0.70 
2.04 

.27 


3.62 

0.00 

2.17 

.60 




1907 


4.48 
.67 
.35 


0.70 

2.70 

1.18 

.00 


0.27 

.73 

1.30 

.00 


17. 4i 


1908 


13.72 


1909 




1910 


.12 


.84 




























a 


Estim 


ated. 

















80 



WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



Monthly and annual rainfall, in inches, for Sulphur Spring Valley and the adjacent 

mountains — Continued. 



Chiricahua Mountains. 

[Location and elevation not known. 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


An- 
nual. 


1889 


















0.94 

2.19 

8.24 

.02 

.00 


1.42 
2.85 


0.0 
1.72 


1.55 
2.90 
3.15 
1.18 




1890 


3.80 


0.0 
1.33 

1.08* 


0.0 
.00 
2.62 
2.40 

1.80 


0.89 

2.60 

.00 


0.0 
.50 
.00 

1.76 


0.0 
-.70 

2.75 
.29 


1.18 
1.19 


3.83 
8.G3 


19. 36 

o 25. 54 


1891 


1.50 

.75 

.45 

1.60 


1892 


"t." 


1.87 




1893 


3.87 


10.98 


&20.88 


1894 































Cochise. 

[Elevation, 4,219 feet.] 



1899... 




0.21 

.80 
2.12 

.00 
4.20 

.00 
3.20 
1.80 

.20 
1.46 


0.15 
.50 
.53 
.45 

1.05 
.00 

4.70 
.40 
.00 
.65 


0.26 
.00 
.10 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.12 
.15 
.10 
.30 


0.00 

.00 
.60 
20 
.62 
.70 
.00 
T. 
.50 
.10 
.00 
T. 


1.12 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.53 
.00 
.00 
T. 
T. 
.20 


2.61 

.00 

2.65 

.36 

.86 

3.00 

2.22 

1.22 

3.45 

3.50 

1.95 

2.61 


0.83 
.00 
2.04 
1.36 
2.00 
3.17 
2.25 
3.37 
3.94 
.88 
2.87 
3.55 


3.40 
T. 
.50 
.00 

1.22 
.25 

2.30 
.10 
.85 
.70 
.66 

4.70 


0.00 
.00 

1.06 
.10 
.00 
.50 
.30 
T. 

1.92 
.08 
.00 
T. 


0.00 
.00 
.72 

1.95 
.00 
.00 

2.65 
.50 

1.93 
.40 
.42 
.74 


0.00 
T. 

.07 
2.08 
.00 
.30 
.82 
2.77 
.00 
.95 
.93 
.00 




1900. . . 


0.00 
.69 
T. 
T. 
.40 

2.18 
.32 

2.93 
.32 
.00 
.75 


1.30 


1901 . 


11.08 


1902 . 


6.49 


1903 


9.95 


1904 


8.32 


1905 


22.27 


1906 


10.63 


1907 

1908 

1909 


15.82 
9.34 


1910 


T. 


.10 


.25 


12.90 








.69 


1.27 


.78 


.21 


.23 


.16 


1.87 


2.04 


1.22 


.33 


.78 


.66 


10.24 







Courtland. 

[Elevation, 4,543 feet.] 



1910. 



0.52 




0.25 


0.00 


0.03 


0.81 


2.17 


2.55 


0.04 


0.03 


0.89 0.00 



Dos Cabezos. 

[Elevation, 5,250 feet.] 



1889 


















0.58 

1.36 

.79 

.05 

1.83 

.32 


1.11 

1.12 

.00 

1.06 

.00 

.00 


T. 

0.42 
T. 
.0 
.26 

1.30 


0.12 
2.31 

.76 




1890 


1.28 
.40 
.66 
.63. 
.93 


0.29 
2.16 
2.27 
1.46 

.00 


0.08 
.54 


0.95 


0.0 

1.15 

T. 

.00 

.00 


0.03 
.34 
.10 

1.44 

1.24 


3.90 
.43 
1.82 
4.61 
4.06 


5.07 
2.05 
1.10 
2.31 
1.88 


16.81 


1891 


8.62 


1892 




1909 

1910 


1.62 
.15 


.00 
.68 


.95 
.00 


15.11 
10.56 







Douglas. 

[Elevation, 3,930 feet.] 



1903 
























T. 
1.09 

.70 
2.36 

.00 
1.16 

.99 

.02 




1904 


0.02 
.80 
.32 

1.94 
.50 
.02 
.20 


0.10 

L07 
.31 
.80 
.31 
.20 


T. 

2.75 
.90 
.37 
.40 

1.03 
.10 


0.00 
1.91 
.15 
.21 
.08 
.00 
.02 


.51 
.00 
.00 
.99 
.13 
.00 
.02 


0.09 
1.25 
.23 
.00 
.03 
.29 
1.07 


3.08 
1.74 
1.72 
2.66 
3.74 
3.50 
2.52 


1.68 
3.27 
4.80 
3.72 
2.12 
4.03 
4.48 


0.92 

1.86 

.89 

1.50 

.90 
.66 
.85 


1.49 
1.00 
.31 
.63 
.05 
.11 
.18 


0.00 

2.73 

.37 

2.41 

.53 
.02 
.66 


8.98 


1905 


20.70 


1906 


13.12 


1907... 


14.74 


1908 


10.44 


1909... 


10.96 


1910 


10.32 






Average 


.54 


.78 


.79 


.34 


.23 


.42 


2.71 


3.44 


1.08 


.54 


.96 


.79 


12.62 







a Summation omitting April and October. 



b Summation omitting November. 



RAINFALL. 



81 



Monthly and annual rainfall, in inches, for Sulphur Spring Valley and the adjacent 

mountains — Continued. 

Dragoon. 

[Elevation, 4,614 feet.] 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


An- 
nual. 


1891 


0.36 

1.10 

.29 

.43 

1.23 

.35 

2.11 

3.22 

1.63 

.69 

.60 

.00 

.10 


2.18 
2.67 

.77 
1.77 


0.38 
.97 
.93 


0.00 


0.83 


0.00 

.00 
.00 

".'66' 

.71 

.00 

.32 

.00 

.00 

.00 

T. 

.00 

.89 


0.95 
1.54 
3.31 
1.69 
1.25 
2 70 
2.51 
3.90 
4.86 
2.32 
.00 
.40 
1.60 


0.40 
1.54 
4.49 
4.78 
3.63 
.75 
3.92 
2.55 
3.10 
3.06 
2.65 
1.88 
3.10 












1892 


0.19 


0.37 








1893 


.00 
.00 
.17 
.10 
.00 
1.44 
.22 
.52 
.00 


1.40 
.00 

.57 
.00 
95 
.00 
.00 
.21 
' .71 
T. 

".'66' 








1894 












1895 


1.55 

4.33 

3.10 

.00 

2.88 
.84 
.33 
.99 
.00 


.55 
5.10 
.05 
.00 
.00 
2.05 
.70 
.00 
.00 


2.18 
.80 
.00 
.00 

".'90" 

1.04 

.00 

.00 


1.26 
.00 
.00 

1.40 
.00 
T. 

2.70 
.00 
.00 




1896 


1.19 

.00 

.00 

.00 

1.47 

1.15 

1.15 

.20 


.00 
.32 
.84 
.21 

T. 
.45 


16.03 


1897 


12.96 


1898 


13.67 


1899 




1901 


12.06 


1902 


10.33 


1903 




1904 


.00 
4.00 


.00 




1905 

























Dragoon Summit (Russelville) 



1890 
















2.13 

.00 

1.66 

3.19 

5.01 

4.00 

.87 

2.15 

2.38 

2.34 

.30 


2.10 

.14 

.45 

1.13 

.67 

1.27 

3.11 

2.27 

1.51 

1.04 

2.41 


1.41 
.00 
.12 
.00 

.78 

.09 

4.45 

".'66' 
.90 
.90 


0.64 
.11 
.23 
.00 
.00 

2.77 
.40 
00 
.49 
.28 
.95 


0.18 
T. 
.20 
.40 

1.70 
.00 
.05 




1891 


0.33 
.13 
.00 
.43 

1.75 
.39 

2.24 
.81 

1.02 

1.10 


1.99 
1.83 
1.44 
1.38 

.00 
.02 
.54 
.00 
.13 
.78 


0.38 
.71 

1.15 
.92 
.00 
.49 
.10 
.00. 
.00 
.96 


0.00 
.29 
.00 
.00 
.15 
.09 
.00 
.75 
.00 
.22 


1.06 
.04 

1.62 
.00 
.18 
.00 
.33 
.00 
.00 
.00 


a0.25 
.18 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.49 
.00 
.52 
.35 
.00 


0.96 
1.17 
3.92 
6.40 

.42 
2.04 
1.23 
2.70 
3.32 

.40 


o5.22 


1892 


7.01 


1893 


12.85 


1894 


17.29 


1895 


10.73 


1896 


12.40 


1897 




1898 


2.28 
.06 
.10 


11.44 


1899 


9.44 


1900 


8.12 







Fort Grant. 

[Elevation, 4,916 feet.] 



1873 


0.00 


1.00 


1.00 


0.00 


0.50 


1.40 


1.70 


5.70 


2.50 


0.46 


3.38 


1.75 


19.39 


1874 






1.58 


2.87 


2.45 


.58 


.07 


.00 


2.70 


2.01 


.00 


1.47 


.38 


3.78 


17.89 


1875 






2.48 


1.44 


1.95 


1.52 


.00 


.50 


7.02 


1.08 


4.59 


.01 


.20 


.12 


20.91 


1876 






.26 


.24 


.44 


T. 


a. 26 


.65 


5.27 


7.41 


1.99 


2.86 


1.00 


a. 22 


20.60 


1877 






.17 


1.50 


.30 


.42 


.66 


.00 


.94 


2.94 


.83 


.71 


.02 


2.20 


10.69 


1878 






.23 


.50 


.37 


.18 


.00 


.32 


6.44 


4.93 


.20 


.00 


1.90 


1.39 


16.46 


1879 






1.38 


.47 


.85 


.07 


.00 


.08 


2.59 


1.12 


2.18 


1.83 


.87 


1.38 


12.82 


1880 






.60 


.48 


.85 


.08 


.00 


1.32 


5.63 


3.73 


1.01 


.47 


.00 


1.57 


15.74 


1881 






.05 


.33 


.89 


.84 


.26 


T. 


5.53 


5.47 


3.84 


1.02 


.08 


.65 


18.96 


1882 






.86 


1.26 


1.84 


.07 


.81 


1.47 


2.02 


4.73 


.80 


.00 


79 


.17 


14.82 


1883 






1.21 


1.40 


1.27 


.03 


1.16 


1.26 


2.90 


3.07 


.42 


1 21 


11 


1.44 


15.48 


1884 






1.12 


4.62 


3.87 


.47 


.81 


1.20 


.67 


2.41 


.98 


3.06 


.53 


5.93 


25.67 


1885 






.31 


1.02 


1.40 


.04 


.25 


.73 


.93 


1.58 


.81 


.03 


1.30 


.81 


9.21 


1886 






2.46 


1.29 


.53 


.30 


.04 


a. 00 


a. 10 


3.40 


3.49 


.57 


.10 


.09 


12.37 


1887 






.11 


2.58 


T. 


.36 


.16 


.85 


9.00 


6.20 


4.20 


.37 


.28 


.21 


24.32 


1888 






.12 


.44 


.83 


.50 


.18 


.02 


4.27 


.52 


.78 


1.19 


3.67 


1.68 


14.20 


1889 






1.99 


1.28 


1.04 


.13 


T. 


1.06 


3.57 


1.35 


.69 


.94 


.16 


1.11 


13.32 


1890 






1.58 


.46 


.46 


.92 


.01 


.20 


3.24 


4.54 


1.36 


1.62 


.34 


2.01 


16.74 


1891 






.82 


3.78 


.28 


.00 


1.40 


.10 


1.19 


2.25 


1.21 


.00 


.00 


1.18 


12.21 


1892 






.96 


1.59 


1.66 


.64 


.35 


.00 


.86 


1.00 


.11 


.46 


.12 


.15 


7.90 


1893 






.56 


.59 


1.26 


.00 


.58 


.00 


4.24 


2.00 


3.87 


T. 


.40 


.35 


13.85 


1894 






.38 


3.43 


.66 


.13 


.37 


.00 


2.55 


1.98 


.14 


1.10 


.00 


2.79 


13.53 


1895 






1.65 


.37 


.02 


.07 


.30 


.14 


1.09 


4.02 


1.69 


1.21 


2.05 


.61 


13.22 


1896 






.29 


.50 


.34 


.00 


.00 


.90 


1.88 


2.68 


2.91 


4.89 


.46 


.24 


15.09 


1897 






4.09 


T. 


.27 


.00 


.04 


.09 


2.05 


1.91 


4.75 


.33 


.00 


.34 


13.87 


1898 






2.23 


T. 


.53 


1.60 


.00 


.37 


2.65 


4.41 


.67 


.00 


.50 


1.30 


14.26 


1899 






.74 


.35 


.25 


.05 


.00 


.46 


3.21 


.52 


69 


30 


.70 


.17 


7.44 


1900 






.31 


.53 


.58 


.48 


T. 


T. 


.50 


2.24 


4.30 


.16 


2.37 


T. 


11.47 


1901 






2.05 


.50 


.80 


T. 


T. 


.00 


4.37 


1.32 


1.20 


1.64 


.52 


T. 


12.40 


1902 






.20 


.40 


.15 


T. 


.30 


T. 


.90 


3.40 


1.25 


.90 


.20 


2.00 


9.70 


1903 






T. 


.09 


2.05 


T. 


.50 


.69 


.12 


3.10 


1.60 


.00 


.00 


.40 


8.55 


1904 






.51 


.31 


.14 


.00 


.40 


.61 


1.35 


.62 


.65 


.31 


.01 


.16 


5.08 


1905 






.36 


2.34 


.99 


1.21 


.00 


.17 


.13 


2.07 


























.96 


1.15 


.92 


.32 


.29 


.44 


2.78 


2.90 


1.74 


.91 


.70 


1.13 


14.24 







a Estimated. 



82209°— wsp 320—13 6 



82 



WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



Monthly and annual rainfall, in inches, for Sulphur Spring Valley and the adjacent 

mountains — Continued . 

Tombstone. 

[Elevation, 4,550 feet.] 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


An- 
nual. 


18S9 








0.00 






3.59 
4.14 


2.03 
6.26 






T. 






1890 


2.51 


0.00 




0.00 


0.00 


2.96 








1891 






0.00 


0.00 


0.11 




1892 








.00 














1893 












4.01 
3.24 
4.24 
3.50 
1.55 
3.23 
.85 
3.09 
3.50 
3.15 
2.77 
3.44 
3.71 
3.03 
4.91 


3.75 
4.41 
3.68 
1.56 
1.98 
5.13 
4.07 
2.22 
4.36 
4.19 
2.81 
4.80 
4.60 
5.83 
4.05 












1897 






.25 
.69 
.19 


T. 
.83 
.36 


T. 
.00 
T. 


T. 
.38 
.65 


5.23 

.85 
1.07 
3.21 
1.23 
1.50 
1.30 

.23 
2.10 

.60 
1.66 

.32 
1.81 

.94 


.05 
.00 


.00 
.55 


.23 
1.29 




1898 


.99 
.33 


T. 
.40 


13.50 


1899 




1900 


.00 
1.51 
.11 
.00 
1.53 
.66 
.43 
.70 
.00 
.05 
.09 


.25 

.77 


.09 
.14 




1901 


.89 
.13 


1.19 
T. 


.31 
.31 


.24 
.00 


.20 
.06 
.08 
1.10 
.00 


T. 
.33 
.60 
.02 
1.29 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.07 
.81 


14.84 


1902 




1903 


.00 

.00 

3.46 

2. 68' 
.45 
.15 

.52 






1901 


.04 
1.96 

.35 
3.38 

.76 
.18 
.18 








.74 
1.00 
2.72 

.00 
1.48 

.93 

.00 




1905 


3.84 

1.68 

.61 

1.45 

.81 

.00 


4.78 
.24 
.21 
.35 

2.05 
.13 


1.41 


27.84 


1906 




1907 


.23 
.35 
.00 
.14 


1.60 
.07 
.00 
.00 


19.31 


1908 


13. 54 


1909 


14.91 


1910 


11.77 







Walnut ranch (10 or 15 miles east of Douglas). 

[Elevation, 5,600 feet.] 



1889 






















0.13 
0.41 

.00 
.18 
T. 
.00 
3.30 
.29 


0.54 
al.99 
.86 
.59 
.48 
1.68 
.61 
.37 




1890 


1.77 
.87 

1.46 
T. 
.60 
.87 
.76 

3.31 


0.08 
1.70 
2.19 

.96 
2.34 

.00 
1.05 

.24 


0.00 

.51 

1.80 

1.67 

2.46 

.07 

.49 

.16 


0.29 
a. 00 
.92 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.31 
.00 


0.00 
.92 
.00 
.81 
.00 
.52 
.00 
.48 


0.00 
.29 
.49 
.00 
.08 
.06 
.13 
.33 


5.06 
.30 
2.87 
2.53 
2.97 
5.51 
6.92 
4.49 


4.89 
3.85 
3.40 
5.25 
3.96 
3.01 
1.54 
2.71 


1.06 

.88 

.36 

2.82 

.48 

1.93 

4.17 


2.11 
.00 

1.83 
.13 

1.82 
.47 

5.45 


17.66 


1891 


10.18 


1892 


16.09 


1893 


14.65 


1894 


16.39 


1895 


16.35 


1896 


21.48 


1897 

















Wilgus. 



1890 








1.19 
.00 
.65 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.42 


0.85 
T. 
.35 

T. 
.79 
.00 


0.00 
.30 
.10 
.10 
.05 
.23 


3.55 
2.95 
3.32 
6.47 
2.81 
3.89 


5.94 
2.43 

"4.29" 
6.67 
2.36 


2.20 
1.03 

.25 
2.75 

.10 
2.05 


1.25 
.00 

1.65 
T. 
.60 
.58 


0.63 

.05 
.25 
.05 
.00 
3.30 


2.80 
.45 

.40 
.40 
.78 
.53 




1891 

1892 


0.90 

1.00 

.15 

.66 

1.35 

.35 


1.70 
1.75 
1.10 
1.60 
.12 
.65 


0.40 
1.47 
1.90 
1.55 
.06 
.50 


11.01 


1893 


17. 56 


1894 


14.82 


1895 


15.36 


1896 























a Estimated. 



KAINFALL. 



83 



Monthly and annual rainfall, in inches, for Sulphur Spring Valley and the adjacent 

mountains — Continued . 

Willcox. 

[Elevation, 4,164 feet.] 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


An- 
nual. 


w 
1880 




















0.04 
.00 
.00 
.30 

3.59 
.00 
.36 
.45 

1.15 
.83 

1.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.78 
.08 

3.17 
.04 
.00 
.22 
.17 
.66 
.20 
.00 
.61 
.37 
.00 

2.24 
T. 
.00 
.12 


0.00 
.00 
.58 
.00 

4.25 
.56 
.58 
.22 

1.86 
T. 
.36 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.59 
.30 
.04 
.08 
.30 
.48 
' .20 
.75 
.00 
.00 

3.63 
.73 

1.95 
.41 
.22 

1.12 


0.40 
.00 
.32 
.86 

3.49 
.19 
.08 
.92 

1.37 
.62 

1.14 
.85 
.17 
.00 
.67 
.40 
.00 
.21 

1.37 
.00 
.00 
.10 

1.00 
.00 
.75 

1.06 

4.07 
.00 

1.09 
.50 
.25 




1881 


0.02 

o. 12 

1.25 

.80 

.05 

1.36 

T. 

.36 

1.31 

1.61 

.47 

.05 

.00 

.50 

.11 

.27 

1.47 

1.25 

.52 

.18 

.35 
.21 
.10 

2.56 
.78 

3.72 
.71 
.31 
.83 


0.00 

1.15 

.31 

1.61 

.63 

.79 

1.83 

1.21 

.90 

.35 

2.37 

1.45 

.10 

1.37 

.00 

ol.lO 

.00 

.00 

.30 

.79 

.00 

.73 

.20 

3.91 

1.25 

.80 

2.15 

.66 

.00 


2.95 

.00 

.41 

1.75 

1.52 

.15 

.00 

1.13 

1.06 

.22 

.46 

.84 

.79 

. 77 

.00 

.05 

.29 

.28 

.28 

.35 

.60 

ol.l0 

.21 

5.00 

.59 

.00 

.58 

2.74 

T. 


T. 
0.00 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.01 
.03 
.03 
.04- 
.63 
.00 
.25 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.27 
.40 
.14 

.00 
.00 
.00 
1.41 
.25 
.55 
.24 
.00 
.10 


0.00 
.00 

.83 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.18 
.14 
.00 
.00 
.82 
1.02 
.50 
.00 
.77 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.40 
1.00 
.35 
.00 
.00 
1.00 
.12 
.00 
.00 


00.10 

a. 21 

6.03 

.04 

.34 

T. 

.47 

.08 

.13 

.15 

.14 

2.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.05 

.03 

a. 95 

.00 

.00 
.59 
.25 
.77 
T. 
.05 
T. 
.50 
.23 


3.97 

.11 
1.56 
1.17 
1.78 

.37 
3.82 
3.68 
4.91 
4.67 

T. 

.97 
a3.25 

.00 
1.92 
1.46 
1.55 
3.13 
2.30 

.56 

.40 
.86 
1.62 
1.34 
2.50 
3.39 
3.89 
3.26 
2.45 


5.17 
3.46 
3.15 
1.54 
2.10 
2.14 
5.31 

.42 

.97 
5.71 
2.10 

.94 
1.03 
1.52 
3.06 
1.77 

.86 
1.55 

.51 
1.57 

2.70 
.84 
4.65 
1.89 
7.76 
3.60 
1.63 
4.16 
1.09 


0.00 

1.56 

.04 

.14 

1.11 

1.68 

2.96 

.50 

2.91 

2.05 

.22 

.32 

.93 

.27 

.11 

1.35 

1.15 

.20 

1.26 

1.97 

.78 

.65 

.85 

1.58 

T. 

.53 

.34 

1.00 

1.58 


12.21 


1882 


7.51 


1883 


8.24 


1884 


18.38 


1885 


8.31 


1886 


7.52 


1887 


16.49 


1888 


11.93 


1889 


13.68 


1890 


17.92 


1891 


7.43 


1892 


8.01 


1893 


6.60 


1894 


5.88 


1895 


8.04 


1896 


9.47 


1897 


5.66 


1898 


8.16 


1899 


► 7.04 


1900 


6.21 




7.45 


1902 


7.18 


1903 


5.98 


1904 


9.59 


1905 


23.52 


1906 


17.93 


1907 


17.83 


1908 


11.16 


1909 


13. 35 


1910 


7.77 






Average 


.76 


.89 


.81 


.15 


.24 


.24 


2.07 


2.51 


.94 


.53 


.65 


.71 


10.50 



a Estimated. 

Summary of average monthly and annual rainfall, in inches, at stations in Sulphur 
Spring Valley and adjacent mountains. 



Station. 


Length 

of 
record. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


An- 
nual. 


Allaire 's 

ranch 

Bisbee 

Cochise 

Douglas 

Fort Grant.. 
Willcox 


Years. 
16 
21 
12 
7 
33 
30 


0.77 
1.21 

.69 
.54 
.96 
.76 


0.71 
1.24 
1.27 

.78 

1.15 

.89 


0.66 
1.10 

.78 
.79 
.92 
.81 


0.23 

.42 
.21 
.34 
.32 
.15 


0.16 
.27 
.23 
.23 
.29 
.24 


0.24 
.29 
.16 

.42 
.44 
.24 


2.61 
3.80 
1.87 
2.71 

2.78 
2.07 


2.81 
4.78 
2.04 
3.44 
2.90 
2.51 


1.30 
1.80 
1.22 
1.08 
1.74 
.94 


0.58 
1.02 
.33 
.54 
.91 
.53 


0.82 
.66 
.78 
.96 
.70 
.65 


0.69 

1.00 

.66 

.79 

1.13 

.71 


11.59 

17.59 
10.24 
12.62 
14.24 
10.50 



GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION. 

WiUcox, Allaire's ranch, Cochise, and Douglas are all situated in the 
low parts of the valley and have no great difference in altitude. The 
average yearly rainfall at Willcox for the past 30 years has been 10.50 
inches, the average at Allaire's ranch for the past 16 years has been 
11.59 inches, the average at Cochise for the past 12 years has been 
10.24 inches, and the average at Douglas for the past 7 years has 
been 12.62 inches. These small differences do not warrant the con- 



84 



WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



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elusion that there is 
any real difference 
in the rainfall at 
these four stations. 
They are in part due 
to differences in the 
years that entered 
into the averages 
and are also proba- 
bly in part acciden- 
tal. The excessive 
rainfall of 1905 af- 
fected the average 
for the short record 
at Douglas much 
more than it affected 
the long record at 
Willcox. Thus the 
average for Douglas 
is higher than the 
average for Willcox, 
notwithstanding the 
fact that since ob- 
servations are being 
made at both points 
more rain has fallen 
at Willcox than at 
Douglas. (See fig. 
11.) By giving 
proper weight to the 
length of each rec- 
ord, the average for 
the four stations is 
found to be 10.72 
inches, and this fig- 
ure may be taken 
as the average rain- 
fall for the past 30 
years in the lower 
parts of the valley. 

Fort Grant is 
about 4,900 feet 
above sea level and 
is situated near the 
upper margin of a 



RAINFALL. 85 

high stream-built slope at the west base of the lofty Pinaleno Moun- 
tains. At this place the average rainfall for 33 years was 14.24 inches. 
During the 24 years, from 1881 to 1894, inclusive, that its record can 
be compared with the records for any of the four stations in the val- 
ley proper, the average for Fort Grant was 13.49 inches, as against 
an average of 9.81 inches for the valley stations. This difference is 
graphically shown in figure 11. A comparison of the Fort Grant rec- 
ord with records of the four stations in the valley proper suggests that 
the rainfall may be generally greater near the mountains than in the 
lower parts of the valley; but it does not prove that the difference is 
everywhere as great as at Fort Grant. The height of the slope and the 
altitude of the adjacent mountains are probably important factors, 
and there may also be a difference between the east and west sides 
of the valley. 

At Bisbee, which is located in the Mule Mountains, about 5,500 
feet above sea level, the average rainfall for 20 years was 17.59 
inches, the average for the four valley stations during the same years 
being 9.76 inches. This difference is clearly illustrated in figure 11. 

The other stations in the mountains show heavier rainfall than the 
valley stations, but their records are too fragmentary to be averaged. 

The diagram in figure 12 shows the general relation of rainfall to 
altitude in southeastern Arizona. It was compiled by G. E. P. Smith 
from the available rainfall records of the region. 1 

The forests on the Chiricahua and Pinaleno ranges indicate that 
the precipitation on the lofty portions of these ranges is greater than 
at Bisbee, where the timber was originally less heavy. Gannett 2 
states that the lower limit of yellow-pine timber is not far from the 
lower limit of the area having over 20 inches of rainfall. On the 
west side of the Chiricahua Mountains, the highest peaks of which rise 
to altitudes of over 9,000 feet, yellow pine grows at altitudes of 6,000 
feet and even lower, but it is most luxuriant at 7,000 to 8,000 feet. 
On less lofty mountains, however, yellow pine is not generally found 
even at altitudes of more than 7,000 feet. This condition suggests 
that more rain falls at a given altitude in a lofty mountain range 
than at the same altitude in a lower range. Likewise it is probably 
true that more rain falls at Fort Grant than at the same altitude 
on a stream-built slope adjacent to a lower mountain range. 

SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION. 

The principal rainy season covers about two months, extending from 
July to September. (See fig. 13.) Fully half of the rain falls in this 
season, most of it being precipitated in a few heavy showers. (See 

i Bull. Arizona Agr. Exp. Sta. No. 64, 1910, p. 109. 

2 Gannett, Henry, Distribution of rainfall: Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 234, 1909, p. 9. 
See also Woolsey, T. S., Western yellow pine in Arizona and New Mexico: Bull. Forest Service No. 101, 
U. S. Dept. Agr., 1911. 



86 



WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



fig. 14.) Thus at Allaire's ranch 47 per cent of the rainfall in 1910 
occurred during four days, of which one was in the later part of July, 
two were in August, and one was in the first week of September. 

The driest part of the year is in the spring. Both at Will cox and at 
Allaire's ranch the average rainfall during the period covering April, 
May, and June has been only 0.63 inch, or only a little over one- 
twentieth of the total rainfall. In many months there is no rainfall 



6,000 



5,000 



4,000 



w 



3,000 




2,000 



Casa Grande 



1,000 l- Phoenix 

4 

Figure 12.— Diagram showing relation of rainfall to altitude in southeastern Arizona. The upper curve 
applies to Cochise and Graham counties; the lower one to Pima and Pinal counties. After G. E. P. 
Smith. 

whatever and only rarely during this season does the land receive a 
good wetting. 

In the winter there are occasional rains, and the average monthly 
precipitation in the valley during this season amounts to approxi- 
mately three-fourths of an inch. In the autumn, after the rainy 
season, there is usually little rainfall. 



RAINFALL. 



87 



The year can be divided into two rel- 
atively rainy and two relatively dry 
seasons, the rainy seasons coming in the 
middle of the summer and in the winter, 
and the dry seasons in the spring and in 
the fall. The rainy seasons are, however, 
only relatively rainy, for between the sud- 
den heavy downpours there are periods 
of severe drought. 

FLUCTUATIONS FROM YEAR TO YEAR. 

The wettest year on record in Sulphur 
Spring Valley was 1905. At each of the 
five stations at which observations were 
made the rainfall during that year broke 
all previous records and at none of them 
has the record for that year been reached 
since, The precipitation in 1905 at the 
four valley stations — Willcox, Cochise, 
Allaire's ranch, and Douglas — averaged 
22.13 inches, or more than twice as much 
as the average for the past 30 years. At 
Tombstone it reached the unprecedented 
total of 27.84 inches. At Bisbee the 1905 
record is not complete, but during the first 
five months the rainfall was nearly four 
times as great as the average at that sta- 
tion for these months. The excess in 
1905 was due to heavy rains in the winter 
months and in November. The summer 
rainy season had only about the average 
amount of rain, and the spring drought 
was nearly as severe as in other years. 

Other notably high records of annual 
rainfall are: Bisbee, 25.87 inches in 1898; 
Fort Grant, 25.67 inches in 1884 and 24.32 
inches in 1887; Willcox, 18.38 inches in 
1884, 16.49 inches in 1887, 17.92 inches in 
1890, 17.93 inches in 1906, and 17.83 inches 
in 1907 ; Cochise, 15.82 inches in 1907 ; and 
Allaire's ranch, 17.34 inches in 1907. 

The most extreme drought recorded was 
in 1900 at Cochise, where only 1.30 inches 
of rain was reported to have fallen during 



Inches « % £ 3 « § 



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roam n ii innni 



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in 



BISBEE 



Figure 13.— Diagram showing month- 
ly rainfall in Sulphur Spring Valley 
and adjacent mountains. 



WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA, 



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BAINFALL. 89 

the entire year and no rain whatever after March. There is, however, 
no way of testing the reliability of this report, and it is possible that 
the abnormal record is due to error. The least annual rainfall 
recorded at Fort Grant was 5.08 inches in 1904, the least at Willcox 
was 5.66 inches in 1897, and the least at Allaire's ranch was 5.93 inches 
in the same year. The rainfall was less than 10 inches during 6 out of 
33 years at Fort Grant, during 5 out of 10 years at Cochise, during 5 
out of 16 years at Allaire's ranch, and during 19 out of 30 years at 
Willcox. At Bisbee the annual rainfall has not been less than 12 
inches during the 21 years that observations have been made at that 
station. 

It is evident from the foregoing discussion that at any given station 
the fluctuations in the annual rainfall are very great. For example, 
the recorded range at Allaire's ranch is between 5.93 and 22.04 inches; 
at Willcox, between 5.66 and 23.52 inches; at Fort Grant, between 
5.08 and 25.67 inches; and at Cochise, between 1.30 (?) and 22.27 
inches. 

Figure 1 1 shows that in a very general way series of dry and wet 
years have succeeded each other. Since 1905 the annual rainfall has, 
on the whole, decreased. The years 1906 and 1907 ranked well 
above the average, 1908 and 1909 were near the average, and 1910 
was somewhat below the average. Immediately preceding 1905 
there were several unusually dry years. 

COMPARISON OF 1910 WITH PREVIOUS YEARS. 

As a large proportion of the settlers attempted agriculture in 
Sulphur Spring Valley for the first time in 1910, and as it is gener- 
ally believed by them that, this year was abnormally dry, it is worth 
while to compare the 1910 record with the records of the preceding 
29 years. 

The average rainfall in 1910 at the four valley stations — Willcox, 
Cochise, Allaire's ranch, and Douglas — was 10.31 inches, and the 
average for the valley during the last 30 years is 10.72 inches. Figures 
14 and 15 show that the principal deficiency occurred in February, 
March, October, and December, that rather more rain fell during 
the rainy season than in an average year, and that the drought 
from April to July was not abnormal. 

Since the beginning of the records Douglas has had five years 
with more rain than 1910 and one year with less; Allaire's ranch has 
had nine years with more and six years with less, and Willcox has 
had eighteen years with more and eleven years with less. Five of 
the thirty years, since the beginning of observations at Willcox, 
have had notably more rain than 1910. These were 1884, with 
18.38 inches; 1887, with 16.49 inches; 1890, with 17.92 inches; 1905, 



90 



WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY. ARIZONA. 



Inches 
5.00 
4.80 
4.60 
4.40 
4.20 
4.00 
3.80 
3.60 
3.40 
3.20 
3.00 
2.80 
2.60 
2.40 
2.20 
2.00 
1.80 
1.60 
1.40 
1.20 
1.00 

.80 

.60 

.40 

.20 

.00 

FIGURE 15. 



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• Diagram showing deviations in 1910 from 
Valley. 



average monthly rainfall in Sulphur Spring 



nches 
5.00 


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Feb. 
Mar. 
Apr. 


May 
June 
July 
Aug. 
Sept. 
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Nov. 
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Figure 10.— Diagram showing deviations in 1911 from average monthly rainfall in Sulphur Spring 

Valley. 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 



91 



with 22.08 inches; and 1907, with 16.63 inches. But even these 
five relatively wet years had little rain from April to July, and in 
some of them the spring drought appears to have been about as 
severe as in 1910. 

The conclusion must be reached that although somewhat less 
than the average amount of rain fell during 1910, the year was not 
radically different from the average and was by no means the driest 
year on record. 

Figures 16 and 17 show the deviations from the average monthly 
rainfall in 1911 and 1912 at the four stations. 



inches 
5.00 
4.80 


Jan. 
Feb. 

Mar. 
Ape 




§ £? IP £, *i >' 

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2.80 
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1.60 
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1.00 
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.60 
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Figure 17. — Diagram showing deviations in 1912 from average monthly rainfall in Sulphur Spring 

Valley. 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
METHODS OF INVESTIGATION. 

The depth to water was measured in about 400 widely distributed 
wells and borings in Sulphur Spring Valley and was reported by 
reliable persons for about 150 additional wells, making a total of 
approximately 550 points at which the depth of the ground water 
beneath the surface was ascertained. These data were used as the 
basis for outlining on Plate II (in pocket) the areas having specified 
depths to ground water. 



92 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

At 271 of the measured wells the depth to water was referred to 
definite bench marks, and these points of reference were connected 
with each other by lines of levels. The bench marks for most of 
the wells are the tops of the curbs or well platforms and are indi- 
cated by three notches cut into the wood. This work, all of which 
was done by F. C. Kelton, determined the altitude at which ground 
water occurs at 271 points in the valley, and furnished the basis for 
the 10-foot ground-water contours shown on the map. These con- 
tours are not shown for the upper parts of the slopes, where, because, 
of the scarcity of wells and the necessary limitations of the work, 
no levels were run. See also the table on pp. 117-121. 

MAIN BODY OF GROUND WATER. 
FUNCTION OF THE ROCK TROUGH. 

The rock trough which embraces Sulphur Spring Valley is com- 
posed of igneous and hard sedimentary formations through which 
water can not readily pass. The valley fill, on the other hand, 
includes more or less unconsolidated and porous materials. The 
rain water that is not drained away through Whitewater Draw 
and that escapes immediate evaporation seeps downward through 
the pores of the valley fill but is held within the rock trough. It is 
as if a dish were partly filled with sand and then water poured on 
the sand in the dish. The rock trough forms, however, a rather 
leaky dish, and if the rainfall did not furnish new supplies the water 
would no doubt all eventually escape from the valley fill. The 
ground water not only drains away at the north and south ends, 
where rock walls are lacking, but it no doubt also seeps slowly through 
crevices and pores in the floor and sides of the rock trough itself. 
These losses are, however, more than counterbalanced by the con- 
tributions from rainfall, as is shown by the fact that the valley fill 
has become saturated practically to the surface in the lowest places, 
and that in these places the ground water soaks upward to the sur- 
face and is removed quietly but in great quantities by evaporation. 

CONDITIONS GOVERNING SLOPE OF WATER TABLE. 

In the lowest parts of the valley the sediments are saturated nearly 
to the top, but in other localities the upper portion of the valley fill 
is nearly dry, and it is only at some depth that all pores and 
crevices are commonly occupied by water. A well is dry until it is 
sunk to the ground-water table, and as a rule the depth to water in 
a well shows the approximate depth of the water table below the 
surface. 

The water table stands at different levels, however, in different 
localities. For example, at the north end of the barren flat it is 4,130 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 93 

feet above sea level; at Willcox it is 4,154 feet; at the old O. T. ranch 
it is 4,181 feet; at the premises of S. N. Kemp, a quarter of a mile 
west of the O. T. ranch, it is 4,190 feet; and at the J. H. ranch it is 
4,207 feet. At Allaire's ranch it is 4,146 feet above sea level, at Sul- 
phur Springs it is 4,196 feet, at Pearce it is 4,189 feet, at the West 
well it is 4,253 feet, and at Light post office it is 4,329 feet. At the 
smelters in Douglas it is less than 3,900 feet above sea level, 4 J miles 
west of the smelters it is 3,960 feet, and at the Soldiers Hole it is 
4,130 feet. The shape of the ground-water table, or surface below 
which the ground is saturated, is shown on the map (PI. II) so far as 
the available data permit. 

If the ground water received no new contributions and if it could 
not escape from the valley it would gradually seek a common level 
and the water table would become flat like the surface of a lake. In 
fact, however, it receives large contributions in some localities and 
sustains heavy losses in others. Where it receives contributions the 
water level is raised; where it sustains losses the water level is de- 
pressed. The ground water, like water on the surface, tends to flow 
from the highest levels to the lowest, and consequently it moves, very 
slowly indeed, from the principal areas of intake to the principal 
areas of disposal. The slope of the water table therefore shows the 
direction in which the ground water is moving and indicates the 
areas of intake and the areas of disposal. For example, as the ground 
water stands 4,207 feet above sea level at the J. H. ranch and only 
4,130 feet at the barren flat, it is not in equilibrium but must tend 
to flow from its higher level at the J. H. ranch to its lower level at 
the flat. If this difference in level is a permanent condition and if 
there is a constant current of ground water from the J. H. ranch 
toward the flat, there must obviously be a perennial source of supply 
from the region north of the ranch and a continual disposal of the 
oncoming waters at the barren flat. 

Other things being equal, the steeper the slope of the water table 
the more vigorous will be the underflow. For instance, the water 
table descends 77 feet in the 14 miles from the J. H. ranch to the 
barren flat, an average of 5 J feet to the mile; but it descends about 
the same distance in the 6| miles from Light to the West well, making 
an average slope of 12| feet to the mile. This difference in the gradi- 
ent indicates that if the conditions are otherwise the same the under- 
flow is more vigorous between Light and the West well than between 
the J. H. ranch and the barren flat, and consequently that the supply 
for the vicinity of Light is more copious than the supply for the 
vicinity of the J. H. ranch. 

A difference in the slope of the water table does not in itself, how- 
ever, prove that the underflow is more vigorous, for the rate of flow 
depends also on the ease with which the water can penetrate the 



94 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

formation. Thus, the ground water passes but slowly through clayey 
sediments or cemented gravels, even though it has a steep gradient, 
but it flows readily, even with slight gradient, through clean, coarse 
gravel. The water level may be considerably lower on one side of a 
chain of buttes than on the other, indicating not that there is unusu- 
ally vigorous underflow, but rather that the underflow is obstructed 
by the buttes. 

RELATION OF WATER TABLE TO SURFACE. 

Both the form of the surface of the valley and the form of the water 
table are the expression of the interaction of certain natural laws; 
the first is governed in its main features by the laws of stream grada r 
tion, the second by hydraulic laws. The surface of the valley has, 
generally speaking, been built highest in the localities that received the 
largest supplies of sediment. In a similar manner, the ground-water 
table is maintained at the highest level in the localities that receive 
the largest accessions of ground water. The two are closely related, 
for the floods which wash out the largest quantities of sediment also 
furnish the largest contributions of ground water. Hence, both the 
surface of the valley and the ground-water table slope from the 
mountain borders toward the central axis, and both are highest near 
the largest mountains whence come the heaviest floods. In general, 
however, the grade established by the streams is much steeper than 
that required for the underground circulation. Hence, the water 
table is in general at the greatest depths beneath the surface in locali- 
ties adjacent to lofty mountains, notwithstanding the fact that in 
these localities it is highest above sea level. 

The depth to ground water is less than 100 feet throughout a 
belt of land that extends along the axis of the valley from a point 
only 10 miles south of the Arivaipa divide to the Mexican border. 
This belt is about 80 miles long and has an average width of about 
8^ miles. Beginning at the north with the width of Hookers Draw, it 
widens southward until in the vicinity of the barren flat it attains a 
width of nearly 15 miles. South of the flat it becomes more con- 
stricted, and along the divide it narrows to only 3 or 4 miles. Between 
Soldiers Hole and the Four Bar ranch it expands to a width of nearly 
10 miles, but farther south it gradually narrows to less than 6 miles. 
This belt includes approximately 675 square miles, or somewhat 
more than one- third of the entire valley and nearly one-fourth of the 
entire drainage basin. About 425 square miles of its area lie in the 
north basin and 250 square miles in the south basin. These estimates 
do not include the areas of shallow water in the mountains nor the 
shallow-water tracts along the upper courses of the principal draws. 

Along the divide between the north and south basins the depth to 
water is more than 50 feet, and hence the area having less than 50 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 95 

feet to water is separated into two tracts, one in each basin. The 
northern tract is in the form of a lens 35 miles long and 13 miles in 
maximum width. It extends south-southeastward from a point a 
short distance north of the J. H. ranch nearly to the West well and 
includes about 285 square miles. The southern tract extends from a 
point about a mile north of the Brophy windmill southward to the 
Mexican border, a distance of nearly 35 miles. In the vicinity of the 
southern alkali flat it widens to 1\ miles and extends far toward the 
Swisshelm Mountains. South of the Four Bar ranch it forms a narrow 
belt on both sides of Whitewater Draw. The southern tract is about 
125 square miles in extent, and the combined area of the two tracts 
is about 410 square miles. 

The land having ground water at a depth of less than 25 feet occurs 
in two tracts that lie within the two 50-foot tracts. The northern 
tract comprises the barren flat, a large nearly level area north of the 
flat, a narrow belt on each side of the flat, and a lowland plain extend- 
ing from the flat to a point about 2J miles southeast of Sulphur 
Springs. It includes about 175 square miles. The southern tract 
covers only about 45 square miles. It surrounds the southern alkali 
flat, south of which it contracts into a belt that averages less than a 
mile in width and that closely follows Whitewater Draw. The total 
area over which ground water is within 25 feet of the surface is about 
220 square miles. 

The north basin contains a tract of about 125 square miles over 
which ground water stands less than 15 feet below the surface. This 
tract includes the barren flat, an area of about 40 square miles lying 
north of the flat and extending a short distance beyond the township 
line that passes through Willcox and the O. T. ranch, a narrow belt 
on the east and west sides of the flat, and a tongue of land reaching 
from the south end of the flat to a point a short distance beyond 
Sulphur Springs. In the south basin the tract that has water within 
15 feet of the surface covers scarcely 25 square miles, or one-fifth the 
area of the northern tract. It extends from a point about a mile 
north of Soldiers Hole to the Mexican border, but most of its area is 
included within the expanded belt that embraces the southern alkali 
flat. Southward from the Four Bar ranch it contracts, and from 
about the southern line of T. 21 S. to the city of Douglas, a distance 
of 18 miles, it is confined to the flood plain and in some sections to 
the stream channel of Whitewater Draw. 

Over many square miles the ground water stands at depths of 
less than 10 feet, over considerable areas it stands at depths of less 
than 5 feet, and in several localities it comes to the surface, forming 
springs, seeps, and water holes. 

At the township corners immediately west of Willcox the depth to 
water is about 10 feet, at the O. T. ranch it is about 11 feet, and over 



96 



WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



most of the area between these points and the barren flat it is between 
5 and 10 feet, except on the wind-built ridges, where the depth is 
greater. In several borings along the northern margin of the flat 
the depth to water was about 4 feet. On the west side of the flat 
there is a narrow strip of very shallow water, and at certain locali- 
ties, as at Croton Springs, near the northwest angle of the flat, and 
in the vicinity of Roger's flowing well, east of Cochise (PL II, in 
pocket), the water comes to the surface; in the knoll springs it is 
above the surface of the surrounding land. A similar narrow belt 
of very shallow water borders the barren flat on the east. At the 
schoolhouse near the northeast corner of sec. 2, T. 15 S., R. 25 E., 
the depth to water is 6 feet; nearer the flat it is only 4 feet; at Brum- 
met's flowing well, on the next section north, a seep is said to have 
formerly existed; and a number of the gullies in this vicinity, called 
" death traps," have been cut down to the water level. Very shallow 
water also occurs between the flat and McCalPs ranch (PL II), near 
which the depth is less than 5 feet, and in the vicinity of Sulphur 
Springs, where over a considerable area the depth is likewise less 
than 5 feet. In the interior part of the barren flat itself the ground 
is moist to the top, but borings to the depth of 12 feet did not discover 
any definite water level, probably because the clay is so fine grained 
that it is almost impervious. 

The flat in the south basin contains areas aggregating a number of 
square miles over which the depth to water is less than 10 feet, and 
along a narrow belt from Soldiers Hole to a point southeast of the 
Four Bar ranch the depth is less than 5 feet. In some localities 
Whitewater Draw appears to tap the ground water, but more com- 
monly it is 5 to 10 feet above the water table. 

The data in regard to the depth of the water table below the sur- 
face in Sulphur Spring Valley can be summarized as follows : 

Area of tracts in Sulphur Spring Valley having specified depths to ground water. 



Depth. 


North 
basin. 


South 
basin. 


Entire 
valley. 


Feet. 


Sq. mi. 
125 
50 
110 
140 
175 
285 
425 


Sq. mi. 
25 
20 
80 
125 
45 
125 
250 


Sq. mi. 
150 
70 
190 
265 
220 
410 
675 


15 to 25 


25 to 50 


50 to 100 






Less than 100... 





RELATION OF WATER TABLE TO SOURCE OF SUPPLY. 



The contours of the water table on the map (PL II) show that it 
slopes from the Pinaleno, Dos Cabezas, Chiricahua, Winchester, Dra- 
goon, and Little Dragoon mountains toward the barren flat. They 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 97 

indicate, therefore, that the ground water is replenished chiefly from 
these mountains and that it moves from the mountain sources toward 
the flat. In the south basin the contours have not been extended far 
enough to indicate very clearly their relation to the mountains; if 
they were extended they would probably show more plainly that the 
water table slopes away from the margins of the mountains, where 
the principal underground supplies are received. 

The map also indicates to some extent the relative amounts of 
ground water that are contributed by the different ranges. It shows, 
for instance, that, as would be expected, the supply from the Chiri- 
cahua Mountains is much greater than that from the northern part 
of the Dos Cabezas Range. .The 4,170-foot water contour passes 
within a mile of the north end of the Dos Cabezas Range, but re- 
mains about 20 miles from the Chiricahua Mountains; the water 
level within a mile of the Dos Cabezas Range is only 40 feet above 
that of the barren flat, but the water level 6 or 7 miles from the 
margin of the Chiricahua Mountains is 230 feet above the water level 
of the flat; the slope of the water table, as far as it was determined, 
is 6 feet to the mile between the north end of the Dos Cabezas Range 
and the flat, but averages 11 \ feet between the Chiricahua Moun- 
tains and the flat. (See PI. II.) 

The map also shows that the underground supply from the Chiri- 
cahua Mountains is greater than that from the Dragoon Mountains. 
The large contribution of sediments by the Chiricahua Mountains is 
the cause, at least in part, of the high ground that divides the 
surface drainage of the valley (p. 25). Likewise its large contribu- 
tions of water have raised the water level above the level farther 
north and south, and have thus separated the underground waters 
into two independent systems, one of which drains toward the 
barren flat and the other southward into Mexico. The water from 
the Chiricahua Mountains, both surface and underground, is divided, 
a part being sent into each basin. That larger amounts of sediment 
were contributed by the Chiricahua Mountains than by the Dragoon 
Mountains is shown by the fact that the axis of the valley is much 
nearer the latter, and a corresponding difference in the contributions 
of ground water is indicated by a similar position of the axis of the 
water table. The water table in this part of the valley descends 
toward the west for four-fifths of the distance from the Chiricahua 
Mountains to the Dragoon Mountains and, according to the data 
obtained, continues its westward descent for considerable distances 
beyond the axis of the valley itself, where the surface slopes toward 
the east. (See Hg. 18 and PI. II.) 

The ground water stands at a higher altitude near the axis of the 
valley southwest of the Sulphur Hills than it does in the vicinity of 
82209°— wsp 320—13 7 



98 



WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



Pearce, which is 5 miles southwest of the axis and more than 100 
feet higher. From the Southwest wells westward to the railroad the 
water table descends continuously, although within a few miles of 



Altitude above 
sea level 
F Feet 




ground 



South or Sulphur Hills 
i_^- 



Water table 



4,400 
4300. 
4,200 



Railroad 1 mile north of Midway 



Two miles west 
of Midway 



^1 


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SouthwesHtfeif 




way 




V\fater table.. 


1 















Altitude above 
sea level 
E Feet 

' 4,400 



4.300 
4200 




Railroad one-half mile south of Midway 
1 



Horizontal seal 
2 3 



5 Miles 



Figure 18.— Sections showing westward inclination of water table west of axis of Sulphur Spring 
Valley, in region opposite Chiricahua Mountains. 

the railroad the surface rises toward the Dragoon Mountains. In a 
well 2 miles west of the railroad, in the SW. J sec. 26, T. 18 S., R. 
25 E., the water stands at a lower altitude than in the wells near the 



NE. 
Altitude above sea level 




Feet 

4100 



4,000 



3500 



Horizontal scale 
2 3 



5 Miles 



Figure 19.— Section in vicinity of Douglas, showing difference in inclination of water table on opposite 

sides of valley. 

axis of the valley, although it is more than halfway up the slope of 
the Dragoon Mountains and on ground more than 200 feet above the 
axis of the valley. This persistent westward slope of the water table 
probably indicates that the water from the Chiricahua Mountains is 
greatly in excess of the water from the Dragoon Mountains and that 
it is carried far beyond the center of the valley. 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 99 

In the northern part of the south basin the largest supplies of 
ground water come from the east, but in the southern part the 
conditions seem to be reversed, more copious supplies apparently 
being furnished by the Mule Mountains than by the Perilla Range. 
Not only does the axis of the water table swing eastward with the 
axis of the valle}^, but, as is shown in Plate II and figure 19, the 
slope of the water table is much steeper on the west than on the east 
side. Along the line of the section shown in figure 19 the water 
table on the west side descends 55 feet in 4 miles, or about 11 feet to 
the mile, whereas on the east side it descends only 7 feet in the same 
distance, or less than 2 feet to the mile. Since there is no corre- 
sponding difference in the slope of the surface, there is a wider belt 
with moderate depth to water on the west than on the east side. 
The difference in water supply from opposite sides of the valley 
suggested by the difference in the gradient of the water table may 
well be explained by the difference between the Mule and Perilla 
ranges in both width and altitude. 

EFFECT OF THE BUTTES ON THE WATER TABLE. 

The depth to water was not measured in enough wells in the 
vicinity of the buttes to determine very definitely their effect on the 
water table. The supplies of water furnished by the buttes are 
probably too small to raise the water table greatly. For instance, 
the water level is at no higher altitude in the well at Pearce, which 
is near the base of a butte of considerable size, than in the well of 
W. H. Scofield, 4 miles northwest of Pearce, on lower ground and far 
from any butte. A number of other wells situated near buttes are 
listed in the table on pages 117-120, and in none of them does the 
water level seem to be higher than would be expected if the buttes 
were not present. 

The chief effect of the buttes on the ground water seems to be in 
obstructing its flow, thereby causing a depression of the water table 
on the leeward sides of the buttes. Such a depression is suggested 
by the water level in a number of wells near the chain of buttes that 
extends from the Sulphur Hills to the Swisshelm Mountains. 

RELATION OF WATER TABLE TO DISPOSAL OF GROUND WATER. 

In the south basin the water table slopes southward, descending 
from about 4,190 feet above sea level at the divide, south of Pearce, 
to about 3,890 feet where Whitewater Draw crosses the international 
boundary (PL II). Near the divide the gradient is slight, the ground 
water standing almost at a level over an extensive area south and 
southeast of Pearce. From the vicinity of Caliente station to the 



100 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

southern limits of the region, however, the gradient averages nearly 
10 feet to the mile and corresponds closely to the gradient of the 
axis of the valley. This slope indicates that the entire body of 
ground water in the south basin is moving slowly southward to some 
undetermined destination in Mexico. 

Wherever the water stands within 5 or 10 feet of the surface it 
soaks upward through the soil and evaporates, and in this way large 
quantities of ground water may be returned to the atmosphere. In 
the low flat south of Soldiers Hole there appears to be an area of 
considerable extent over which this process is taking place, and it 
is not unlikely that an important part of the underground supply 
furnished by the Chiricahua Mountains through the upper course of 
Whitewater Draw is thus returned to the atmosphere. In some 
parts of Whitewater Draw in its course between the flat and Douglas 
ground water is also disappearing by this process or by seepage. 
The draw is so narrow that the quantity of water disposed of can not 
be large, but it may have some influence in preventing the axis 
of the water table from being shifted far to either side of the axis of 
the valley. 

In the north basin the water table has, generally speaking, the 
form of an inverted cone — that is, it slopes from all sides in the 
direction of the alkali flat. (See PI. II, in pocket.) It resembles the 
surface of the basin in general contour, but its slopes are less steep 
and have fewer irregularities. This shape of the water table indi- 
cates that on all sides the underflow is toward the alkali flat, and it 
suggests that the disposal of the ground waters of the north basin 
occurs in great part in the vicinity of the flat. A large portion of the 
area of 125 square miles in which the depth to water is less than 15 
feet is yielding ground water to the atmosphere, and this loss of 
ground w^ater no doubt causes the great depression of the water 
table and directs the underflow throughout almost the entire basin 
toward the flat. 

The moist condition of the clay near the surface in all parts of the 
flat indicates that even in the interior the ground water is within 
reach of evaporation. But the alkali flat is so large and yet so nearly 
level that the water table beneath it can have only a very slight 
gradient. (See PI. II.) Both the slight gradient and the fact that 
the clay in the interior is very fine indicate that the ground water is 
disposed of but slowly in the interior, and that the movement of 
ground water from the margin of the barren flat toward the interior 
is sluggish. The largest quantities of water are probably lost near 
the margin, where the sediments are somewhat coarser. 

Near the northwest angle of the barren flat, and at several other 
places along its margin, the ground water comes to the surface in the 
form of springs or seeps, the largest of which are Croton Springs. 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER.* 101 

Sulphur Springs are situated 5 miles from the flat and 65 feet above 
it. As shown on Plate II, they occur in an area in which the ground- 
water level is exceptionally high. 

In going from the flat to Arivaipa Valley the southeastward slope 
of the water table becomes progressively less steep. For several 
miles north of the flat it is about 10 feet to the mile, or nearly the 
same as the slope of the valley; hi the vicinity of the J. H. ranch it 
is about 4 feet to the mile, or decidedly less than the slope of the val- 
ley; and nearer Hooker's ranch, where the most northerly wells that 
reach the main body of ground water are situated, the southward 
slope appears to be hardly more than 1 foot to the mile. Arivaipa 
Valley has been cut lower than the northern part of Sulphur Spring 
Valley, and the ground water beneath the northern part of Sulphur 
Spring Valley is probably drawn toward the Arivaipa, thus depress- 
ing the water level; in other words, the ground-water divide is prob- 
ably south of the surface-water divide. Shallow water occurs in the 
principal draws near the north end of the valley (PI. II and p. 105); 
but at some distance from these draws, where only the main body of 
ground water probably exists, the depth to water is likely to be rather 
great, 

VARIATIONS IN THE WATER LEVEL. 

An equilibrium exists between the amount of water annually added 
to the underground store and the amount annually removed from this 
store by evaporation and seepage. This balance tends to be main- 
tained through changing climatic conditions by fluctuations in the 
ground-water level, whereby the rate of underflow and the amount of 
evaporation and seepage are regulated. If the rainfall should 
decrease and the annual increment to the underground store be 
diminished, then, by the excess of loss over gain, the ground-water 
level would be lowered, and this lowering would decrease the flow of 
the springs and the evaporation from the low areas. Eventually a 
level would be reached at which loss would no more than balance 
gain. The same adjustment would take place if the rainfall remained 
the same but the evaporating power of the atmosphere were to 
increase. If, on the other hand, the amount of rainfall should 
increase or the evaporating power decrease, or, what is much more 
probable, should both these changes take place at the same time, 
then the ground-water level would rise, new springs would burst 
forth, and evaporation would take place over a larger area, until loss 
would once more be great enough to balance gain. 

The fluctuations hi the water level, which no doubt occur as rainy 
and dry seasons alternate and rainy and dry years or periods of years 
succeed each other, imply that the ground-water contours do not 
remain stationary and that the areas having specified depths to 



102 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

water do not have fixed boundaries. The map (PL II) merely 
shows the position of the contours and boundaries at the time the 
measurements were made. At some periods in the past, probably in 
Pleistocene time, when throughout the continent the climate was 
notably cold and humid, the water level in the north basin rose 
greatly, and equilibrium between increment and disposal was not 
established until a lake had accumulated that exposed about 120 
square miles of water surface to continuous and unrestricted evapo- 
ration. The drainage in the southern part of the valley probably 
prevented an equally great rise in the water lovel of the south basin. 
The field work did not cover a sufficiently long period to make pos- 
sible any adequate investigation of the ordinary fluctuations, but the 
bench marks established and the data obtained (pp. 117-121) furnish 
a basis for further observations. In the NW. J sec. 22, T. 13 S., K. 
24 E., the water level was found to stand about 2 feet lower on De- 
cember 9, 1910, than on September 12 of the same year, while at 
the northeast corner of sec. 1, T. 14 S., R. 24 E., the lowering of the 
water level from September 23 to December 10 was only about one- 
tenth as great. In general, the fluctuations appear to bo greater 
near the mountains than near the alkali flat. The water level at 
Allaire's ranch was, according to Mr. Allaire, about 7 feet lower in 
1910 than in 1884, and a similar lowering of about 7 feet is reported 
by W. H. Newell on the u 44" ranch between 1886 and 1910. A rise 
in the water level was noted by Mr. Allaire after the unusually heavy 
rainfall of 1905. 

WATER ABOVE THE MAIN BODY. 
GENERAL RELATIONS. 

Ground water is, in general, found near the surface in the center of 
the valley and at greater depths up the slopes toward the mountains. 
Shallow water is, however, also found in many localities on the upper 
parts of the slopes, especially in or near the principal draws (PL II). 
This distribution of ground water has controlled the location of the 
cattle ranches, and, somewhat less rigidly, the location of the home- 
steads of recent settlers. Most of the ranches were established in 
the low central parts of the valley, where water could be procured 
without fail by sinking shallow wells; but a few were located where 
shallow water was found on the upper parts of the slopes and in cer- 
tain shallow-water areas among the mountains. (See p. 18.) The 
wide, monotonous expanses that lie between the central shallow- 
water belt and the high-level shallow-water tracts have remained 
the most thinly populated, the least developed, and the most un- 
promising parts of the valley. 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 103 

Where the stream deposits of the upper slopes are porous enough 
to allow free percolation, the flood waters that enter the ground sink 
rapidly. A well drilled in such an area remains dry until it reaches 
the water table of the main body of ground water, far below the 
surface. 

In some places near the mountains impervious bedrock lies only a 
short distance below the surface, and water is found in the porous 
deposits that rest on this rock. More commonly, however, shallow 
water is found where there is no indication of bedrock, and in several 
high-level shallow-water tracts a great thickness of valley fill has 
been demonstrated by drilling. 

In many wells shallow water is struck above a layer of valley fill 
that has been rendered nearly waterproof by a firm calcareous cement. 
In most localities the relation of the high-level waters to the main 
body of ground water could not be ascertained, because few wells that 
extend to the main body are found far enough up the slopes. At a 
few points, however, in or near areas of high-level waters, deep wells 
havo been drilled, and these show that ordinary unsaturated valley 
fill may occur below the cemented floor that holds up the shallow 
water and that the deep water to which they extend is not under 
much pressure, but remains in the wells, far below the level of the 
shallow water. These conditions are in contrast to those found in 
the center of the valley, where the main body of ground water is 
near the surface, where every porous bed below the first water- 
bearing stratum is saturated, and where the deeper waters invariably 
rise in the wells to at least the level of the first water. 

Most of the high-level shallow-water tracts occur along the draws 
that conduct the floods discharged by the principal canyons, and 
they obviously obtain their waters from these floods. The draws 
that drain the most extensive mountain areas, such as Bonita Draw 
and Turkey Creek, have the largest and most reliable shallow-water 
tracts. The interstream areas and the. draws that lead from small 
canyons either have no shallow-water tracts or have only small 
tracts that do not extend far from the mountains, yield only very 
meager supplies, and in seasons of drought contract greatly or be- 
come wholly dry. 

In general, the shallow-water tracts yield most freely near the moun- 
tains and gradually decrease in yield downstream. In general, also, 
they are least affected by the dry seasons near the mountains and are 
very sensitive to drought at their lower ends. They do not have fixed 
boundaries but are continually expanding or contracting in response 
to the rainfall, or, more precisely, in response to the floods that flow 
through the draws, the greatest expansion and contraction commonly 
being at the lower ends. 



104 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Along some draws reversed conditions are found, as along Fivemile 
Creek and Ash Creek (of the Chiricahua drainage) . At certain points 
on these stream courses "cienegas" and very shallow wells occur far 
from the mountains, while farther upstream there are stretches where 
no ground water has been found. The dry areas probably occur 
where the underlying deposits are porous enough to allow the ground 
water to sink, the water-bearing areas farther down the valley 
receiving their supplies directly from the floods that reach them. 
The springs and shallow flowing wells apparently exist where the 
impervious beds that hold up the water come near the surface. 

The level of these upland bodies of shallow water fluctuates more 
rapidly and through a wider range than does the water level of the 
main body, which is vastly greater and receives its supplies with more 
regularity and from a much larger number of sources. In the 36-foot 
dug well at the Bonita store, for example, the water is said to be 



Upland 



Flood plain 



I 



Wafer table 



25 Feet 



WET SEASON 



^erjVaWl^. 



— '" DRY SEASON 

Figure 20. — Section on Turkey Creek showing differential fluctuation of water table. 

exaggerated about fivefold.) 



(Vertical scale 



usually only about 12 feet below the surface, yet in September, 1910, 
it stood 32 feet below the surface. 

An interesting fluctuation occurred in 1910 in the two shallow wells 
of A. D. Rand, in the NE. \ sec. 8, T. 18 S., R. 28 E. As shown in 
figure 20, both wells are 18 feet deep, but one is situated on the flood 
plain of Turkey Creek and the other on adjacent ground several feet 
higher. In the rainy season the lower well was nearly full of water, 
whereas in the upper well the water stood much farther below the 
surface and at a distinctly lower level. Later in the season, when 
dry weather returned, the water level in the lower well sank rapidly, 
and the well became entirely dry at a time when the upper well still 
had 2 feet of water. The lower well is evidently sunk into more por- 
ous gravel than the upper well and it is also nearer the source of 
supply. Hence, it filled more rapidly when the floods came and was 
more quickly drained when it received no new supplies. 



OCCUBRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 105 

NORTH END OF VALLEY. 

At the north end of Sulphur Spring Valley shallow water occurs 
in the following localities: (1) The draw of Taylor Canyon; (2) 
Bonita Draw, from Bonita post office probably to its junction with 
Hookers Draw; (3) Hookers Draw, from the spring 5 miles above the 
ranch to a point at least 1 or 2 miles below the ranch; (4) land adja- 
cent to High Creek, near the point where this creek leaves the moun- 
tains; and (5) certain tracts along Oak and Ash creeks. 

The draw of Taylor Canyon, which extends from the mountains 
southward to Bonita post office, has for many years been inhabited 
by a few settlers, who dug wells and generally found water within 50 
feet of the surface. The water' level in this draw varies greatly, as is 
shown by a 50-foot well in sec. 28, T. 9 S., R. 23 E., which in the rainy 
season was filled within 18 feet of the surface but later became entirely 
dry. 

In the vicinity of the post office Bonita Draw is nearly 2 miles wide 
and has very shallow water. In certain localities, as on the farm of 
M. L. Wood, the underflow is at some seasons so near the surface that 
it serves as a natural subirrigation supply. In September, 1910, the 
water had sunk lower than usual, but it stood between 20 and 30 feet 
in most of the wells examined. The depth to water gradually 
increases downstream and is reported to average between 50 and 60 
feet 2 miles below the post office. Bonita Draw is rather thickly 
populated and is inhabited by some of the earliest settlers in the 
valley. 

Hookers Draw contains several localities in which the water comes 
to the surface or stands only a very few feet below the surface. The 
most important locality of this sort is the cienega in sec. 6, T. 11 S., 
R. 23 E., just below the junction of Bonita Draw and Ash Creek with 
Hookers Draw. A so-called spring occurs in the axis of the valley 
less than 2 miles from the Arivaipa divide. A dug well about a mile 
below the cienega had water within 30 feet of the surface in December, 
1910, but no shallow wells were observed farther down the valley. In 
this draw, as in the Taylor and Bonita draws, the water level fluctu- 
ates rapidly and through a wide range. The cienega was the site 
chosen by Mr. Hooker for the Sierra Bonita ranch, one of the oldest 
ranching establishments in the valley. . 

A spring occurs where High Creek leaves the mountains, and water 
has been found in a well about 60 feet deep in the NW. J sec. 20, T. 
10 S., R. 22 E., and in several wells in the vicinity of Ash Creek. 
Some of these wells obtain their water from a stratum immediately 
above bedrock, but in others the rock is probably far below the water 
level. Most of the wells have failed in dry seasons, thereby causing 
serious inconvenience to settlers that depended on them. 



106 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



113M d33<3 
773A1 MOllVHS 



Duudg 
apiAiQ ediBAuv 



01 o 




vBdimjX 



113M N311X 




v&n 



U3M 1S3M 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 107 

The shallow water near the north end of the valley stands above 
the level of the main body of ground water. In going from the bar- 
ren flat to Hooker's ranch, the depth to water increases continuously 
and the slope of the water table becomes gradually more slight, 
until at only a short distance from the ranch water is encountered 
near the surface and at a level entirely discordant with the water 
table farther south. Thus, in a well at the south margin of sec. 7, 
less than 2 miles south of Hooker's cienega, the water level is 136 
feet below the surface and only 4 feet above the water level at a 
point 3^ miles farther down the valley; but in a well in the northern 
part of the same section the water level is only 30 feet below the sur- 
face and fully 100 feet above the water level in the first well. The 
abrupt character of this change is shown in Plate II (in pocket), and 
also in figure 21 . In a number of wells sunk at some distance from the 
draws either no water was found or it was found at a lower level 
than in the draws. 

The shallow water supply in the draws obviously comes from the 
run-off of the mountains which is directed into these draws. The 
supply in Bonita Draw is larger and more reliable than the supplies 
along High, Oak, and Ash creeks, because the drainage basin which 
furnishes the supply is larger and better watered. 

SLOPE ADJACENT TO CHIRICAHUA MOUNTAINS. 

Shallow water is found in the following localities on the slope bor- 
dering the Chiricahua Mountains: (1) Along Pinery Creek and its 
branches; (2) at a number of points in T. 17 S., Rs. 27 and 28 E., on 
both sides of Fivemile Creek; (3) along Turkey and Ash creeks and 
their tributaries; and (4) along Whitewater Draw. 

The draw of Pinery Creek as far down as the Star ranch is a broad 
meadow with a good growth of grass and some trees; above this 
ranch it is joined by several tributaries which also form broad 
meadows. At the Star ranch a well about 25 feet deep yields a 
small supply of water, and farther up the draw there are other shal- 
low wells which are said to yield more freely. Shallow water is found 
along this creek and its branches for at least 6 or 7 miles above the 
ranch. The Riggs ranches and the Riggs settlement were established 
in this shallow-water area at an early date in the valley's history. 
The portion of the draw below the Star ranch appears more arid, 
and no wells were reported in it. 

Fivemile Creek has a smaller drainage area than Pinery and 
Turkey creeks, and its ground-water supplies appear to be more 
localized. Water is found above rock at the ranch of J. T. Porch, 
in the SW. i sec. 14, T. 17 S., R. 28 E.; in the NW. \ sec. 23; and in 
a deep tributary ravine in sec. 11. Shallow water has been struck 
at a number of localities farther down the slope (PL II). Some of 



108 WATER RESOURCES OP SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

these are near the draw of Fivemile Creek; others are several miles 
from it. The local character of these supplies is shown by the fact 
that a number of rather deep holes have been sunk in the same 
region without striking water. The farthest down the slope that 
shallow water has been found is at a spring, or cienega, in the NW. 
J sec. 20, T. 17 S., K. 27 E., 9 miles from the mountains. 

The water of this cienega and of the 8-foot wells of S. R. Holde- 
man in the quarter section next north is far above the main body of 
ground water and is brought to the surface by an impervious layer 
of valley fill, as is definitely proved by the drilled well of C. M. Allen 
in the NE. I sec. 19. The Allen well, situated less than half a mile 
from the cienega and on slightly lower ground, is 146 feet deep, and 
its water level is 116 feet below the surfacs. In this well the drill 
passed through a few feet of clay and loose gravel, then penetrated a 
compact cemented clay with embedded pebbles and rocks to a depth 
of more than 100 feet, then passed in succession through beds of sand, 
red clay, and sand and gravel, the well being finished in gravel. The 
seepage that supplies the cienega and the Holdeman wells is evi- 
dently in the loose gravelly material above the cemented pebbly 
clay. (See fig. 21.) 

The shallow supply is very sensitive to the irregularities in the 
rainfall and fails entirely in some of the wells during periods of pro- 
tracted drought. The Holdeman wells are reported to have over- 
flowed from December, 1909, till June, 1910, after which the water 
subsided until the latter part of July, when it stood 6 feet below the 
surface. After the summer rains the water level rose, but at the end 
of September it still stood below the top of the wells. The yield of 
the shallow wells is generally too small to supply a windmill con- 
tinuously. The yield of the Allen well is larger and is not known to 
be affected by drought. 

The valley of Turkey Creek is broad but shallow, and in some 
places it is practically at the general level of the upland. It contains 
a scattering growth of trees for about 10 miles beyond the mountains. 
Shallow wells yielding small and variable supplies are found at short 
intervals along this so-called creek from the vicinity of Wilgus to 
about sec. 6,T. 18S.,R.27E., approximately 13 miles below Wilgus 
and 11 miles from the edge of the mountains. The shallow wells are 
also found along Rock Creek and along the smaller tributaries of 
Turkey Creek. A meager yield of water can in some seasons be 
obtained in the NE. \ sec. 6, T. 18 S., R. 27 E., at a depth of 12 
feet, but no shallow wells were reported farther west. 

The relation of the shallow water to the main body of ground 
water is well shown along Turkey Creek, a number of deep wells 
having been sunk in localities that have shallow dug wells. The 
drilled wells have sections that are similar to those of the Allen well. 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 109 

The water level in them (PL II and fig. 19) accords with the water 
table of the main body of ground water, but is 100 to 200 feet below 
that of the shallow-water bodies. The supply of the drilled wells is 
permanent and large, especially as compared with that of the shallow 
wells. The deep well of O. S. Pratt, in the NE. \ sec. 6, T. 18 S., 
R. 27 E., for instance, is pumped by an engine at the rate of 50 
gallons a minute, whereas most of the shallow wells will probably 
not yield as much water as a windmill can pump. 

Water has been struck in a number of shallow wells along Ash and 
Pridham creeks and elsewhere in the southern part of T. 18 S. (PI. II), 
but in other localities in the same region water was found only by 
drilling to depths of several hundred feet. On Ash Creek, about 3 
miles from the mountains, a drill hole is said to have been sunk 386 
feet without encountering a supply. One of the well-known sources 
of water supply in this region is the so-called cienega near the center 
of sec. 25, T. 18 S., R. 27 E., where a 17-foot dug well sometimes 
overflows and seldom or never goes dry. On December 1, 1910, the 
water in this well stood only 2-| feet below the surface. There is a 
shallow well in the SW. \ sec. 23, T. 18 S., R. 27 E., in the valley of 
Ash Creek, and a spring in the quarter section next west. This 
spring is 8 miles from the mountains — the farthest point on Ash Creek 
where evidence of shallow water was observed. 

Whitewater Draw, above the point of the Swisshelm Mountains, is 
a broad, deep valley with many trees. At the Rucker ranch, in the 
NW. J sec 29, T. 19 S., R. 28 E., two wells had water 44 feet below the 
surface in November, 1910. About \\ miles down the valley from 
Rucker' s there are wet- weather wells about 10 feet deep and more 
reliable supplies are said to exist at 40 to 100 feet. At the Whitehead 
ranch three wells 145 and 150 feet deep are filled with water in wet 
seasons within 10 or 15 feet of the surface, but in dry seasons yield 
little water. Formerly there was a shallow well in the NW. \ sec. 22, 
T. 19 S., R. 27 E., where the floods of Whitewater Draw have cut into 
a small porphyry butte. No wells were observed for 3 miles down- 
stream from Whitehead Ridge, but below that point there are many 
wells, all of which extend to the main body of ground water. (See 
PI. II.) 

SLOPE ADJACENT TO SWISSHELM MOUNTAINS. 

Small supplies of water have been struck in several wells near the 
channel of Leslie Creek at depths of less than 100 feet. These wells 
are near the group of buttes shown in Plate II, and the water of at least 
some of them lies immediately above the rock. These supplies are 
evidently above the true water table, as is shown by the well of W. A. 
Murphy, in the NE. \ sec. 29, and the Double Rod well, in the SW. \ 
sec. 16, in which the water stands about 215 feet below the surface. 



110 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 
SLOPE ADJACENT TO PERILLA MOUNTAINS. 

Two dug wells furnish a supply for the farm of C. A. Gardner, in 
T. 22 S., K. 28 E. The deepest of these wells was sunk 47 feet, and 
the water level in both was reported to be about 32 feet below the 
surface. In a drilled well on the premises of D. H. Watson, 3 miles 
west of the Gardner wells and on ground more than 100 feet lower, 
the water is reported to stand about 200 feet below the surface. 

The well of William Maddox, in lot 1, sec. 4, T. 24 S., R. 28 E., is 
about 40 feet deep and yields only meager supplies. The well of R. H. 
Davidson, in lot 2 of the same section, was originally 90 feet deep and 
yielded little water, but it was later drilled to a total depth of 280 
feet, with the result that the water level fell to about 200 feet below 
the surface, but the yield was greatly increased. The well of Frank 
Doan, in the NW. J sec. 15, about 90 feet deep, and other wells east 
of Douglas apparently also draw from supplies that have not yet sunk 
to the main body of ground water. 

SLOPE ADJACENT TO DRAGOON MOUNTAINS. 

Shallow water has been struck in or near several draws in the 
vicinity of the Cochise Stronghold. As in most other localities, the 
largest and most dependable supplies are found near the mountains. 
The deep wells of W. E. Ellison, in the SW. J sec. 9, T. 17 S., R. 24 E., 
and the deep well of G. H. Dean, in the NE. \ sec. 15, are 1 or 2 miles 
farther from the mountain border than the shallow dug wells. (See 
PL II.) In sinking these deep wells a seep that was too weak for 
practical use was noted by the drillers 40 or 50 feet below the surface 
and immediately above a cemented bed. After piercing this bed the 
drilling was continued through apparently dry sediments till true 
waterbearing beds were struck at depths of 275 and 200 feet. The 
water in the deep beds was under slight pressure, but remained 258 
feet below the surface in the Ellison well and 194 feet below in the 
Dean well. 

A 38-foot dug well with water 32 feet below the surface is situated 
in sec. 16, T. 19 S., R. 25 E., a short distance northeast of Courtland. 
It is near the mountains and appears to have been sunk into decom- 
posed rock. Other attempts to find shallow water in the same locality 
have been unsuccessful. A similar well, 80 feet deep and with very 
small yield, is situated near the Arizona Eastern Railroad, southeast 
of Courtland. 

The ranch of William Cowan, situated on the high land between the 
Dragoon and Mule mountains, has two wells, neither of which has a 
large supply. One is a dug well about 100 feet deep and the other 
a drilled well about 300 feet deep. The dug well extends through 
valley fill, which is cemented for the most part below the depth of 30 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. Ill 

feet and which ends in impervious clay or shale. Most of the water 
comes from the less firmly cemented parts of the fill near its contact 
with the clay. Soon after the beginning of the rainy season the well 
begins to fill, and the water level may rise within 40 feet of the top.; 
in this season the well can not be pumped dry by continuous use 
of the windmill. Later the water level sinks, and in the spring the 
daily supply may become reduced to an amount that can be pumped 
in one hour. 

SLOPE ADJACENT TO MULE MOUNTAINS. 

A few shallow wells are found along the draw near the international 
boundary. The supply on Chris tianson's ranch (PL II) is obtained 
from a dug well that was sunk 60 feet deep, apparently all in a caliche 
conglomerate, and is filled with water within 20 feet of the top. This 
well differs from most of the high-level wells in that its water level is 
said to be nearly constant and the supply is abundant and permanent. 
Another dug well situated in the same draw about 2 miles east of 
Christi anson's ranch has a water level 28 feet below the surface. 
About 5 miles east of this well several wells reach the main body of 
ground water at about 100 feet, but in the intervening belt only dry 
holes were observed and unsuccessful borings of considerable depth 
are reported. 

WATER IN MINOR ROCK BASINS. 

CHARACTER OF BASINS. 

Shallow ground water is found in many localities in the mountainous 
areas bordering Sulphur Spring Valley. It occurs in basins formed 
of rocks that are sufficiently compact and unfractured to hold it. The 
basins are partly filled with porous rock waste, which receives the rain 
that falls upon them and the storm waters that drain into them from 
adjacent higher land. Because of the waterproof character of the 
basins this water does not readily escape, but collects in the rock 
waste or layer of upper weathered rock and may produce seeps or 
furnish supplies for shallow wells. These small basins differ from the 
valley itself in size rather than in character. They are most abundant 
in areas of igneous rock, but some of them are formed, at least in part, 
by quartzite or other compact sedimentary beds. 

PINALENO MOUNTAINS. 

Shallow water is found near the mouths of some of the canyons 
in the Pinaleno Mountains. For example, a shallow well, a seepage 
spring and a cottonwood tree are found near the mouth of the canyon 
in which the old Bar X ranch was situated ; a little farther down the 
draw there is an outcropping ledge of rock that apparently causes 
these shallow- water conditions. Below the ledge there is no indica- 



112 WATEK RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

tion of ground water, and the depth to water may be great. At the 
old Hayse ranch, in another canyon, a shallow well is evidently sup- 
plied by water which seeps through the sediments above the rock 
floor of the valley. 

DOS CABEZAS MOUNTAINS. 

The Dos Cabezas Range is flanked on the southwest by hard 
Paleozoic quartzites and limestones that dip toward the southwest 
at a steep angle and, because of their resistant character, form a 
sharp conspicuous ridge. Back of the ridge is a broad, relatively 
low basin which is underlain by granitic rocks covered with coarse 
rock waste and which drains into a canyon cut through the ridge. 
The upturned quartzite bed forms a dam which impounds the 
water in the sediments of the basin, thereby providing an abund- 
ant shallow-water supply for the village of Dos Cabezos, which is 
situated in the basin. (See fig. 22.) The depth to water in the 



SM 



Dry sediments 



fi 
If 





* Granitic rock L.7*' 1 V-i^vJY--,'- 



Approximate scale 
1 '2 



Miles 



Figure 22.— Geologic section showing shallow-water conditions at Dos Cabezos. 

basin decreases downstream, and near the canyon and in its upper 
part ground water is virtually at the surface. At the Busenbark 
ranch the water is brought to the surface by a siphon that leads from a 
shallow well at the entrance of the canyon to lower ground farther 
down the canyon. Where the water is shallow, trees of different 
lands, including cottonwood, ash, walnut, hackberry, and willow, 
grow luxuriantly. Below the quartzite ledge there is no evidence 
of ground water, and the canyon has a barren aspect which is in strik- 
ing contrast to the verdure of the upper tree-covered portion. This 
contrast is to some extent shown by the two views in Plate XII, B 
and C. 

CHIRICAHUA MOUNTAINS. 

The Chiricahua Mountains consist largely of porphyritic rocks 
which are impervious except where they are decomposed. At many 
places veins or dikes of resistant granitic rock run through the more 
readily weathered formation and form dams behind which small 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 320 PLATE 




A. MUD SPRING. 
Showing relation of shallow water to porphyry ledge. 




B. VALLEY DOWNSTREAM FROM DOS CABEZOS. 
Showing barren aspect below quartzite ledge. 




C. VICINITY OF DOS CABEZOS. 
Showing evidences of shallow water above quartzite ledge. 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 113 

quantities of water are ponded. Where these small reservoirs over- 
flow they produce seeps or springs. Igneous rock occurs a short 
distance below the surface in the vicinity of Fivemile Creek near the 
mountains. In the SW. \ sec. 14, T. 17 S., R. 28 E., water is found 
by sinking about 50 feet to this rock, and in sec. 11 of the same town- 
ship water is brought to the surface by an outcrop of this rock in a 
deep ravine some distance from the edge of the mountains. 

SWISSHELM MOUNTAINS. 

In the vicinity of Leslie Canyon the Swisshelm Mountains consist 
of eastward-dipping limestones covered with acidic lavas, back of 
which is a basin comparable to that in the Dos Cabezas Range. Leslie 
Canyon cuts through the lava and limestone series, and leads from 
the basin to Sulphur Spring Valley (fig. 23). 

The lava is relatively resistant and impervious, and therefore 
constitutes a dam behind which the water that has seeped into the 



Limestone 
Dry sediments. 







Sp«i 



Igneous rock 



Approximate scale 

2 3 4 5 MifeS. 



.Figure 23.— Geologic section showing shallow-water conditions at head of Leslie Canyon. 

sediments of the basin is impounded and can be recovered by means 
of shallow wells. At the entrance into the canyon the underground 
reservoir overflows, forming a good spring. The water from the 
spring flows down the canyon, either at the surface or through the 
gravels near the surface, until it reaches the limestone, where it dis- 
appears, apparently through the crevices of this rock. Trees are 
growing near the spring and in the part of the canyon that passes 
through igneous rock; but in the lower part of the canyon, which is 
cut through limestone, only a few willows are found. 

PERILLA MOUNTAINS. 

An elevated, shallow- water basin exists in the vicinity of Tufa and 
the area north of that station. It is composed chiefly of igneous rocks, 
upon which rests a layer of granular and poorly assorted sediments. 
A number of shallow welfe are supplied with water held in these 
sediments. Water is also found seeping through the gravels in the 
valley of Silver Creek, which drains southeastward into San Bernar- 
dino Valley. 

82209°— wsp 320—13 8 



114 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Mud Spring is situated on sec. 16, T. 22 S., R. 28 E., in a stream 
valley that drains westward into Sulphur Spring Valley. The 
spring, a shallow well, and a clump of trees are found on the upstream 
side of a ledge of resistant red porphyry (PL XII, A). The ledge 
apparently extends underground across the valley and obstructs the 
water that seeps downstream through the valley gravels. 

GALIURO AND WINCHESTER MOUNTAINS. 

A number of seeps and springs occur in the mountains northwest 
of Sulphur Spring Valley. So far as known they resemble in charac- 
ter and origin the mountain springs already described. No extensive 
shallow- water tract was found in this region. 

LITTLE DRAGOON MOUNTAINS. 

The eastern part of the Little Dragoon Mountains consists chiefly 
of limestone and overlying conglomerate and accordingly is devoid of 
ground- water supplies. West of a line connecting Johnson and 
Dragoon station there is an extensive upland area underlain by 
granite mantled with rock waste. Depressions in the granitic surface, 
probably due to differential weathering, entrap the rain and storm 
waters that soak into the rock waste and thus form small reservoirs 
whose supplies are readily tapped by shallow wells. Johnson, which 
is situated in the conglomerate and limestone area, has no wells nor 
springs but depends for its water supply on the well of Robert Mackay, 
situated in a ravine southwest of the village. An outcrop of granite 
immediately below this well indicates that the supply of water is due 
to the impounding of the underground seepage by this impervious 
rock. In the granite area west and south of the Mackay well there are 
several ranches, all of which are supplied by very shallow dug wells. 

DRAGOON MOUNTAINS. 

In the main Dragoon Range, as in the Little Dragoon Mountains, 
the limestone areas are generally destitute of water, but several 
areas underlain by igneous rocks supply springs or shallow wells. 
The entire water supply for the villages of Courtland and Gleeson 
is obtained from shallow wells. The Courtland Water & Ice Co. has 
two dug wells about 2 miles northwest of the village of Courtland, 
one 32 feet and the other 35 feet deep. These wells are situated in 
the mountains, in a ravine bordered by porphyritic lavas and an 
upturned quartzite bed. The wells pass through rock waste and end 
iri greatly decomposed crystalline rock. In October, 1910, the porous 
formations were saturated within 15 feet of the surface, but the 
water level no doubt fluctuates with the rainfall. In June and July, 
1910, before the rainy season, the combined yield of the two wells is 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 115 

reported to have been only 15,000 gallons per day, but soon after the 
summer rains their capacity increased and in October they were 
being pumped at the rate of 3,200 gallons an hour. The water is 
pumped into an elevated tank and thence distributed through a sys- 
tem of mains. The water supply for the Calumet & Arizona Mining 
Co. is obtained from a well near the water company's wells. Several 
other shallow wells have been dug in this gulch. 

MULE MOUNTAINS. 

Small quantities of water are obtained from shallow wells sunk 
into the rock waste at the bottom of some of the gulches in the 
Mule Mountains, and the entire water supply of Bisbee was formerly 
derived from this source. Many of the shallow wells are still in use, 
though the principal supply is now pumped from wells near Naco 
and delivered through a pipe line to the towns in the Mule Mountains. 
The shallow water is found chiefly in the areas of metamorphic and 
igneous rocks, but is not confined to these formations. The supply 
at Forrest's ranch, for instance, is obtained from a spring in Creta- 
ceous sandstone. 

WATER PROSPECTS. 

The shallow-water areas in the mountains owe their existence to the 
fact that they are underlain by compact rock through which the 
water can not percolate. This compact rock holds the water in the 
upper weathered layer of rock and in the overlying debris, but it is 
itself practically destitute of water. Deep drilling in these areas is 
therefore likely to result in failure. To develop a large supply the 
surface from which seepage is received should be made as extensive 
as possible. To this end wells of large diameter should be dug, and 
from the bottoms of the wells tunnels or infiltration galleries should 
be extended through the water-bearing materials. Gangs of shallow 
drilled or driven wells may be practicable in some localities but can 
not be successfully sunk where there are many bowlders. Small sup- 
plies for irrigation can probably be obtained in a few places, and 
valuable domestic and mine supplies can be developed in many 
localities where irrigation is not economically practicable. 

WATER IN CREVICED ROCKS. 

Shallow water is seldom found in mountainous areas underlain by 
limestones because the limestones generally contain crevices through 
which the water sinks. Mines in this kind of rock are usually dry 
until great depths are reached. Below a certain level, however, the 
crevices of the limestone are filled with water, and when a mine is 
developed below this level heavy pumping may be necessary. This 
condition is illustrated at both Tombstone and Bisbee. The rich 



116 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

mines at Tombstone were dry to a depth of 500 or 600 feet, but 
deeper workings could be kept accessible only by pumping great 
quantities of water. The mines at Bisbee are likewise dry to great 
depths, but heavy pumping is required from those which have been 
sunk deepest. Ransome reports that in the Lowell mine the water 
level was encountered about 1,100 feet below the surface (somewhat 
more than 4,200 feet above the sea) and that pumping was necessary 
after this depth was reached. 1 In 1910 the Calumet & Arizona mine 
was pumped at the rate of 2,400 gallons a minute, the water being 
used for irrigation on the Warren ranch, situated several miles south 
of Bisbee. 

Evidently the water level in the limestone and other creviced rocks 
has no relation to that in the shallow-water basins. At Bisbee, for 
example, it is fully a thousand feet lower. Owing to the great depth 
to water, drilling into limestone would in general be as futile as 
drilling .into the impervious igneous rocks. 

Sulphur Spring Valley is itself several thousand feet above sea 
level and, as has been explained, it may be losing large quantities of 
water by leakage through the rock walls and floor. The copious 
quantities of water yielded by the mines at Bisbee and Tombstone 
suggest the possibility of heavy losses where the valley floor consists 
of limestone. On the other hand, the water in limestones of the moun- 
tain areas may to some extent pass through underground openings 
into the main body of ground water in the valley, as is suggested, 
for instance, by the fact that the water in the Lowell mine at Bisbee, 
although far beneath the surface, is several hundred feet above the 
water table in the central part of the valley. 

TABULATED DATA. 

The following table, prepared by F. C. Kelton, gives detailed infor- 
mation in regard to all the wells at which a bench mark was estab- 
lished. It states the location, owner or name, altitude of bench 
mark, altitude of the surface of the ground, depth of the water below 
bench mark, depth of the water below the surface, and the date when 
the measurements were made. 

i Ransome, F. L., Bisbee folio (No. 112), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 16. 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 



117 



Altitude of surface and depth to ivater at various ivells and springs in Sulphur Spring 

Valley, Ariz. 

[By F. C. Kelton.] 



Owner or designation. 



T. 11 S., R. 23 E. 



Miss Busbee... 
Thurman . 



T. 12 S., R.23E. 



Bittocks 

J. H. ranch (house well) 
J. W.L.Cook 



T. 12S..R. 24 E. 



Bartsdale 

E.Cook 

P. C. Cunningham 

Lewis 

Marley 

C. O. Miller (windmill) 



T. 13 S., R. 23 E. 



Taylor. 



T. 13S.,R.24E. 



J. E. Casner 

Comer 

Doam 

Gardenhire. . 

Capt. Harris 

Miss Lipscomb . . . 
D.N. Misenhimer. 
G. M. Misenhimer. 

Morgan 

Sands 

L.Stull 

Utterback. .. 

J.Valentine 



T. 13 S., R. 25 E. 

Bazaure 

Clark 

C. B. Currier 

C. A. Housel 

Martin 

R.L.Owen 

George Rapp 

Rufus Ricketts (west well) . . . 

Wallace 

T.D.Ward 



T. 14 S., R.24E. 



Cox. 



Miss E. Crow. 



C. J. Drake 

Holman (pitcher pump) 

Holman (windmill) 

Kemp 

Marion 

McMillan 

O. T. ranch 

Riley Springs 

Severance 



Taylor (6-inch casing). 
Taylor (house well). . . 



Location. 



Sec- 
tion. 



Quar- 
ter. 



NW. 
SW. 



SE. 
SE. 
SE. 



NE. 
SW. 

SE. 

NW. 

NW. 

SE. 

SE. 



NW. 



NE. 
SE. 

NE. 
SE. 
SE. 

NE. 

NW. 

NE. 

SW. 

NE. 

SE. 

NW. 

NE. 



Willcox. 



SW. 

SE. 
SW. 

SE. 
SE. 

NW. 
NW. 
SW. 
NW. 



SE. 

NE. 

NE. 
SE. 
SE. 
NW. 
NW. 
SE. 
NE. 
NW. 
NE. 

SW. 

SW. 

NW. 



Altitude above sea 
level. 



Bench 
mark, a 



Feet. 
4,327.8 
4,371.6 



4,291.1 
4,254.7 
4,281.4 



4,290.4 
4, 266. 
4,225.0 
4, 254. 5 
4, 285. 4 
4,228.7 
4,235.7 



4,272.2 



4,218.6 
4, 200. 9 
4,232.0 
4,219.7 



4,208.6 
4, 202. 5 
4,203.6 
4,229.4 
4,211.2 
4,211.7 
4, 222. 6 
4, 192. S 



4,168.6 
4,257.7 



4,244.6 
4,187.7 
4, 182. 6 
4, 292. 5 
4, 198. 1 
4, 166. 5 



4,192.7 

4,175.9 

4,183.3 
4,184.3 
4,183.7 
4, 209. 9 



4, 185. 9 
4, 192. 2 



4,167.9 
4,238.9 



4, 219. 7 
4,209.1 



Ground. 



Feet. 



4,369.2 



4,287.0 
4, 252. 6 
4,281.0 



4,289.6 
4,266.0 
4,224.4 
4, 254. 5 
4, 283. 4 
4,228.1 
4,234.1 



4,272.2 



1,218.6 
4, 200. 9 
4, 228. 4 
4,219.7 
4,180.4 
4, 208. 
4,202.1 
4,201.7 
4,228.7 
4,211.1 
4,211.7 
4, 222. 6 
4, 192. 8 



4, 166. 3 
4,256.7 
4,203.1 
4, 244. 
4, 187. 
4, 182. 
4, 292. 5 
4,198.1 
4, 166. 5 
4, 204. 5 



4,190.3 

4,173.4 

4,183.3 
4, 182. 8 
4,183.7 
4,208.9 
4,171.9 
4,184.6 
4, 192. 2 
4,163.8 
4,167.9 

4,237.7 

4,219.7 
4, 209. 



Depth to 
water. 



Below 
bench 
mark.a 



Feet. 
98.$ 
138 A 



47.6 
63.0 



77.4 
53.9 
34.9 
47.1 
71.2 
35.1 
37.8 



70.0 



29.6 
13.6 
45.1 

30.7 



27.1 
24.1 
26.2 
34.0 
28.0 
30.5 
31.9 
22.8 



12.0 
66.2 



55.1 
18.5 
28.0 
101.0 
30.4 
12.0 



19.5 
19.2 
13.7 
13.3 
13.2 



17.9 
20.0 



17.4 
11.4 



9.7 
8.9 

46.5 
46.4 
30.7 
37.2 



Below 
ground, 



Feet. 



136.4 



45.5 
63.0 



76.6 
53.9 
34.3 
47.1 
69.2 
34.5 
36.2 



70.0 



9.7 
65.2 
36.4 
54.5 
17.8 
27.4 
101.0 
30.4 
12.0 
35.0 



Date 

when 

depth 

to water 

was 
meas- 
ured. t> 



Oct. 29 
Oct. 30 



Oct. 28 
Oct. 26 
Oct. 28 



Oct. 28 

Oct. 26 

Oct. 19 

Oct. 26 

Oct. 28 

Oct. 24 

Oct. 26 



Oct. 22 



Oct. 22 

June 3 

Oct. 19 

Oct. 22 

Oct. 18 

Oct. 27 

Oct. 19 

Oct. 19 

Oct. 22 

Oct. 19 

Oct. 27 

Oct. 22 

Oct. 18 



Oct. 18 
Oct. 27 
Nov. 28 
Oct. 27 
Nov. 27 
Oct. 21 

Nov. 28 
Oct. 21 
Nov. 28 



Oct. 20 
June 3 
Oct. 18 
June 3 
Oct. 20 
Nov. 12 
Nov. 12 
Oct. 20 
Nov. 12 
Nov. 12 
Oct. 20 
Nov. 12 
Oct. 18 
May 18 
Oct. 20 
June 3 
Oct. 20 
Nov. 26 



a The bench mark is generally indicated by three notches cut into the wood of well curb or platform. 
b Dates between October, 1910, and June, 1911. 



118 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Altitude of surface and depth to water at various wells and springs in Sulphur Spring 

Valley, Ariz. — Continued. 



Owner or designation. 



T. 14 S., R. 25 E. 

E. Brummet 

Martin (house well) 

Martin (southeast well). . . 

C. T. McGlone (house well). . . . 
C. T. McGlone (drilled well). . . 

K.Riggs 

J. E. Speaks 

Wiley (east windmill) 



T. 14 S., R. 26 E. 



W. M. Lafevers 

Roberts (southeast windmill) 



T. 15 S., R.24E. 



Brown (at ranch) 

Brown (near Cochise) 

C. A.Cornell 

Woodson Garrard (at Cochise) . 

Hoesch 

W. T. Muse 

P. G. Rogers 

Do 

— — Sarver 

J. F.Titsch 

Utterback 



T. 15 S., R. 25 E. 

Th. Allaire 

F. Arzberger 

Bachman 

E vinger 

V. H. Fross (pumping plant). 

Hope ranch 

Fred Hulsey 

Mc Arthur 

Miller (house well). ..."... 

W. G. Sipes 

202 ranch 



T.15S., R.26E. 



Lance 

School section. 



T. 16S., R.24E. 

H.T. Fitch 

Woodson Garrard (north well) . 
Frank Halderman (windmill) . 

J. A. Jenkins 

F. R. Masterson 

McCall (sun motor) 

A. Schneebeli 

J. Schneebeli 

School section 

W. Whitencr (house well) 

- — ■ Wilcox (south well) 

■ Wilcox (north well) 



T. 1GS..R.25 E. 



Peter Adling. . 
W. S. Bemis... 
E. S. Blanke.. 

Chaffic. . . 

J. W. Dun kin. 

John Grafe 

Sam Grafe 

W. C. Harper. 
E. S. King 



Location. 



Sec- 
tion. 



24 



Quar- 
ter. 



NE. 
NW. 

NW. 
NW. 
NW. 
NE. 
SE. 
SE. 



SW. 

sw. 



SE. 
NW. 
SE. 
SW. 

NW. 
SE. 
NW. 
NE. 
SE. 
NW. 
NE. 



SE. 
SW. 

sw. 

NE. 
SE. 

NW. 
NW. 
NW. 
NE. 

NE. 
NE. 



NW. 
SW. 



NW. 
NE. 
NW. 
NW. 
SE. 
NW. 
NE. 
SE. 
SE. 
SW. 
SE. 
NE. 
NE. 



SE. 
NW. 
SW. 
SW. 
NE. 
NW. 
SW. 
SW. 
SW. 



Altitude above sea 
level. 



Bench 
mark. 



Feet. 
4,183.8 
4,210.3 
4,220.5 
4,163.8 
4,160.4 
4, 190. 7 
4,201.5 
4,216.5 



4,212.7 
4,281.0 



4,184.0 
4, 220. 9 
4, 206. 
4,216.8 
4,161.7 
4, 276. 5 
4,152.4 



4,300.3 
4, 215. 4 



4,171.2 
4,200.5 
4, 182. 6 
4,183.8 
4,164.9 
4,182.9 
4,160.7 
4,197.3 
4,215.9 
4,173.2 
4,199.2 



4,229.9 
4,319.3 



4, 194. 1 
4,195.0 
4,164.3 
4,223.1 
4,180.2 
4,167.3 
4, 270. 4 
4,277.7 
4,218.1 
4, 190. 6 
4, 173. 2 



4, 212. 7 
4,236.7 



4, 187. 
4, 243. 6 
4, 197. 6 
4, 197. 6 
4, 169. 8 
4,220.3 



Ground. 



Feet. 
4, 182. 7 
4,210.0 
4,218.6 
4,161.8 
4, 160. 
4,182.8 
4, 199. 2 
4,216.0 



4,212.0 

4,281.0 



4,182.0 
4,217.6 
4,205.0 
4,216.8 
4,161.7 
4, 276. 
4,151.0 
4, 139. 3 
4,249.3 
4, 298. 
4,215.4 



4,171.2 
4,206.0 
4,182.6 
4,183.8 
4,164.9 
4,182.9 
4,160.0 
4,197.3 
4,215.9 
4,172.0 
4,199.0 



4, 249. 9 
4,319.0 



4,194.1 
4,195.0 
4,164.0 
4,222.0 
4,179.0 
4,166.0 
4, 270. 4 
4,277.7 
4,218.0 
4, 189. 
4, 173. 2 
4, 163. 8 
4, 199. 4 



4,212.7 
4, 234. 
4, 199. 3 
4, 185. 
4,243.6 
4, 198. 8 
4, 198. 
4, 169. 
4, 220. 



Depth to 
water. 



Below 
bench 
mark. 



Feet. 
15.3 
40.3 
49.9 
10.5 
6.0 
20.3 
26.9 
37.1 



29.5 
92.4 



24.7 
57.4 
50.4 
51.2 
11.9 
94.7 
7.0 



120.3 
53.1 



24.6 
27.2 
25.3 
32.5 
14.0 
16.9 

9.3 
29.3 
41.6 

7.1 
22.2 
21.2 



118. 



23.6 
39.4 

8.6 
47.4 
16.8 

7.3 
86.2 
92.0 
52.4 
35.7 
14.2 



35.7 
36.8 



20.4 
41.8 
3.2 
2.6 
15.0 
37.6 



Below 
ground 



Feet. 
14.2 
40.0 
48.0 
8.5 
5.6 
12.4 
24.6 
36.6 



28.8 
92.4 



23.0 
54.1 
49.0 
51.2 
11.9 
94.2 
5.6 
0.0 
77.0 
118.0 
53.1 



24.6 
33.0 
25.3 
32.5 
14.0 
16.9 

8.6 
29.3 
41.6 

5.9 
22.0 
21.0 



49.1 
118.5 



23.6 
39.4 

8.3 
46.3 
15.6 

6.0 
86.2 
92.0 
52.3 
34.1 
14.2 

6.1 
34.7 



35.7 
34.0 
7.4 
18.0 
41.8 
4.4 
3.0 
14.2 
37.0 



Date 
when 
depth 
to water 
was 
meas- 
ured. 



Nov. 14 
Oct. 21 
Oct. 21 
Oct. 31 
Oct. 31 
Nov. 11 
Nov. 13 
Nov. 13 



Nov. 16 
Nov. 13 



Nov. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Nov. 30 

Dec. 1 

Nov. 30 



Nov. 19 
Nov. 17 
Nov. 15 
Nov. 19 
Nov. 19 
Nov. 15 
Nov. 16 
Nov. 15 
Nov. 18 
Nov. 15 
Nov. 16 
May 26 



Nov. 17 
Nov. 17 



Dec. 14 
Dec. 2 
Dec. 3 
Dec. 2 
Dec. 3 
Dec. 14 
Dec. 13 
Dec. 13 
Dec. 13 
Dec. 2 
Dec. 14 
Dee. 14 
Dec. 13 



Nov. 18 
Dec. 6 
Dec. 5 
Nov. 21 
Dec. 6 
Nov. 21 
Nov. 21 
Dec. 14 
Nov. 20 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OP GROUND WATER. 



119 



Altitude of surface and depth to water at various wells and springs in Sulphur Spring 

Valley, Ariz. — Continued. 



Owner or designation. 



Location. 



Sec- 
tion. 



Quar- 
ter. 



Altitude above sea 
level. 



Bench 
mark. 



Ground. 



Depth to 
water. 



Below 
bench 
mark. 



Below 
ground 



Date 
when 
depth 
to water 
was 
meas- 
ured. 



T. 16 S., R. 25 E.— Continued 

J. T. McDuff (pumping plant) 

H. A. Moore 

Rice 

J. A. Ross 

A. J. Rosser 

B. H. Rosser 

Sulphur Springs 

Bob Warren 

T. 16 S., R. 26 E. 
North well 

T. 17 S., R. 24 E. 

G. H. Dean 

W. A . Schofield 

J. F. Wilson 

T. 17 S., R.25E. 

Armstrong 

Mrs. Crawford 

F. M. Gibbens 

H. M. Gibbens 

Wm. Gregory 

W. J. Hansen 

Harper & Williams 

W. A. Hobson (house well) 

W. A. Hobson (northwest well) 

Frank Hughes 

• ■ Lacey (pumping plant) 

Dr. T. C. Lawson 

McBarnes 

R. F. Meachem 

R . W . P arker 

WillPurcell 

N. Siggins (northeast well) 

E.Webb 

H. E . Wright 

A. H. Young 

T. 17 S., R.26E. 

Becker 

New Wheel 

A. M. Pinkerton 

West well 

T. 17 S., R. 27 E. 

CM. Allen 

A . E . Rhodes 

T. 18 S., R. 25 E. 

Rosamond Herd 

J. V. Lambdin 

F. A. Sharkey 

T. 18 S., R. 26 E. 

J. A. Bigelow 

S. F. Burnett 

M. L. Frisbee 

Chas. Knapp 

J. V. Lambdin 

J. Neatherlin 

T. G. Owen 

H.C.Ray 

W . L . Shearer 

Southwest well 

E. C. Stevens 

C. G 



35 



NE. 
NE. 
SE. 
SW. 

NE. 

NW. 
NE. 
NE. 



NE. 



NE. 
NE. 
NE. 



NW. 
SW. 
NE. 
SE. 
SW. 
NE. 



Pearce. 



NE. 
NE. 
NW. 
SE. 
SW. 
NW. 
SW. 
NE. 
NE. 
SE. 
NW. 
NE. 
SE. 
NE. 



SW. 

NW. 
NE. 
SW. 



NE. 
SW. 



SE. 
NW. 
SW. 



NE. 
SE. 
NE. 
SW. 
NE. 
SW. 
SW. 
NE. 
NE. 
SW. 
NW. 
SE. 



Feet. 
4,212.9 
4, 187. 2 
4,231.3 
4, 188. 7 
4, 201. 6 
4, 200. 6 



J. 7 



4,343. 



4,370.1 
4,236.8 



4, 208. 6 
4,231.3 
4,218.2 
4, 249. 6 
4, 239. 2 
4, 236. 6 
4,378.6 
4, 233. 2 
4, 226. 6 
4, 204. 5 
4,201.5 
4,215.4 
4, 230. 3 
4, 224. 7 
4, 242. 
4, 234. 2 



4,241.6 



4, 229. 5 
4,203.7 



4,243.3 
4, 249. 2 
4, 250. 
4,305.6 



4, 378. 7 
4,354.4 



4,360.1 
4,351.3 
4,497.6 



4, 263. 1 
4, 270. 7 
4, 333. 1 
4,262.3 
4,271.3 
4,271.9 
4,250.2 
4, 272. 2 
4, 355. 9 
4,337.5 
4,277.1 
4,305.2 



Feet. 
4,212.9 
4. 185. 2 
4,231.3 
4. 187. 2 
4, 198. 6 
4,200.6 
4, 194. 6 
4, 189. 7 



4,34 .1 



4,383.1 
4,367.6 
4,234.3 



4, 207. 1 
4, 230. 
4,217.0 
4, 247. 
4, 238. 
4, 235. 6 
4,378.0 



,231.0 
, 226. 6 
4, 202. 
4,201.5 
4,215.0 
4, 230. 
4, 223. 
4, 241. 
4, 232. 
4, 238. 6 
4, 241. 
4, 192. 2 
4, 228. 
4,201.0 



4,243.3 

4. 249. 

4. 250. 
4,305.0 



4,378.7 
4, 354. 4 



4, 360. 1 
4, 352. 6 
4, 497. 



4,261.6 
4, 269. 
4,331.1 
4,257.8 
4,271.3 
4,271.9 
4, 248. 6 
4,268.0 
4,354.3 
4, 337. 
4,274.1 
4,302.7 



Feet. 
38.8 
38.9 
28.7 
31.0 
27.6 
26.2 



29.0 



113.0 



180.7 
53.4 



29.2 
40.4 
39.5 
52.8 
57.8 
55.6 
189.4 
42.0 
40.1 
22.2 
24.2 
19.3 
26.9 
44.6 
33.6 
52.6 



57.8 



27.0 
22.2 



42.4 
39.1 
39.5 
52.6 



116.0 
84.0 



170.0 
159.8 
309.8 



67.7 
80.0 
71.1 
66.8 
74.2 
73.1 
58.6 
72.9 
85.8 
127.2 
74.2 
98.3 



Feet. 
38.8 
36.9 
28.7 
29.5 
24.6 
26.2 
00.0 
29.0 



111.5 



194.4 
178.2 
50.9 



27.7 
39.1 
38.3 
50.2 
56.6 
54.6 
188.8 
40.0 
40.1 
19.7 
24.2 
18.9 
26.6 
43.0 
32.6 
50.4 
46.6 
57.2 
10.4 
25.5 
19.5 



42.4 
38.9 
39.5 
52.0 



116.0 
84.0 



170.0 
161.1 
309.2 



66.2 
78.3 
69.1 
62.3 
74.2 
73.1 
57.0 
68.7 
84.2 
126.7 
71.2 
95.8 



Nov. 18 
Nov. 19 
Dec. 6 
Nov. 21 
Dec. 13 
Dec. 13 
Nov. 21 
Nov. 21 



Dec. 



Dec. 11 
Dec. 11 
Dec. 10 



Dec. 10 

Dec. 7 

Dec. 7 

Dec. 7 

Dec. 10 

Dec. 10 

Dec. 16 



Dec. 7 

Dec. 7 

Dec. 5 

Dee. 10 

Dec. 6 

Dec. 6 

Dec. 10 

Dec. 9 

Dec. 7 

Dec. 8 

Dec. 8 

Dec. 5 

Dec. 6 

Dec. 5 



Dec. 15 

Dec. 19 

Dec. 15 

Dec. 16 



Dec. 19 
Dec. 19 



Jan. 28 
Jan. 25 
Jan. 28 



Jan. 25 

Jan. 28 

Dec. 19 

Jan. 23 

Jan. 25 

Dec. 23 

Jan. 24 

Jan. 25 

Dec. 17 

Dec. 22 

Jan. 25 

Dec. 22 



120 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Altitude of surface and depth to water at various wells and springs in Sulphur Spring 

Valley, Ariz. — Continued. 



Owner or designation. 



Location. 


Altitude above sea 
level. 


Depth to 

water. 


Sec- 
tion. 


Quar- 
ter. 


Bench 
mark. 


Ground. 


Below 
bench 
mark. 


Below 
ground. 






Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


2 


NE. 


4,558.7 


4,557.7 


199.4 


198.4 


6 


NE. 


4,383.6 


4, 380. 


104.4 


100.8 


3 


NE. 


4,501.3 


4,500.2 


172.1 


171.0 


28 


SW. 


4, 186. 9 


4, 186. 6 


25.2 


24.9 


8 


NE. 


4,238.4 


4,236.4 


53.4 


51.4 


19 


SE. 


4,245.7 


4,245.7 


78.0 


78.0 


9 


SW. 


4,222.1 


4,222.1 


39.8 


39.8 


3 


SE. 


4,255.3 


4,255.3 


66.1 


66.1 


4 


NE. 


4,251.2 


4,250.2 


58.2 


57.8 


20 


NW. 


4,206.3 


4, 206. 3 


33.0 


33.0 


17 


SE. 


4,211.5 


4, 208. 8 


36.5 


33.8 


21 


NW. 


4,208.9 


4,208.0 


36.9 


36.0 


35 


NE. 


4,271.5 


4,269.8 


108.2 


106.5 


30 


NW. 


4,267.1 


4, 267. 


104.3 


104.2 


29 


SE. 


4, 188. 2 


4, 186. 5 


25.8 


24.1 


17 


NW. 


4, 230. 2 


4,230.0 






1 


NE. 


4,325.3 


4, 325. 


118.9 


118.6 


17 


SW. 


4,219.7 


4,217.6 


45.2 


43.1 


29 


NW. 


4,200.5 


4,200.0 


34.6 


34.1 


34 


SW. 


4,207.9 


4,206.2 


50.3 


48.6 


14 


SW. 


4,562.2 
4, 404. 7 


4, 558. 






7 


SE. 


4,401.1 


199.1 


195.5 


13 


SE. 


4, 194. 1 


4, 192. 5 


52.4 


50.8 


2 


NW. 


4,236.3 


4,231.6 


80.7 


76.0 


18 


SW. 


4, 130. 6 


4, 129. 1 


13.0 


11.5 


14 
22 


NE. 
SE. 


4, 196. 8 
4, 199. 4 




54.8 
19.6 


'"'i9."2" 


4,149.0 


17 


NW. 


4,139.2 


4,139.2 


11.4 


11.4 


31 


NW. 


4,112.7 


4,110.0 


17.9 


15.2 


31 


NW. 


4, 104. 3 


4, 104. 1 


9.2 


9.0 


17 


NE. 


4, 152. 3 


4, 150. 2 


20.8 


18.7 


4 


SE. 


4,191.6 


4, 188. 9 


•44.2 


41.5 


4 


SE. 


4, 189. 2 


4, 189. 2 


42.6 


42.6 


9 


SW. 


4,156.2 


4, 155. 8 


23.0 


22.6 


9 


SW. 


4,167.4 


4, 165. 1 


30.4 


28.1 


24 


SW. 


4, 180. 5 


4, 177. 7 


43.8 


41.0 


34 


NE. 


4,140.9 


4, 138. 8 


21.5 


19.4 


13 


NE. 


4,214.3 


4,211.3 


68.0 


65.0 


25 


NW. 


4, 166. 5 


4,165.8 


34.0 


33.3 


34 


SE. 


4,134.8 


4, 133. 


25.6 


23.8 


12 


NW. 


4,231.7 


4,231.7 


76.4 


76.4 


18 


NW. 


4, 142. 6 


4, 140. 4 


17.0 


14.8 


7 


SE. 


4, 135. 5 


4,135.5 


5.3 


5.3 


12 


SW. 


4,214.9 


4,211.2 


65.7 


62.0 


31 


SW. 


4,094.8 


4, 093. 8 


5.6 


4.6 


35 


SE. 


4,146.8 


4, 143. 8 


34.4 


31.4 


21 


NW. 


4,130.9 


4,130.9 


9.9 


9.9 


5 


NE. 


4, 177. 4 


4,176.0 


28.4 


27.0 


7 


SW. 


4,239.4 


4,239.4 


85.0 


85.0 


18 


SW. 


4, 206. 6 


4,206.6 


59.7 


59.7 


17 


SW. 


4,252.7 


4,252.7 


91.8 


91.8 


33 


SE. 


4,100.2 


4, 098. 1 


56.1 


54.0 


34 


SW. 


4, 108. 4 


4, 107. 3 


62.4 


61.3 


25 


NW. 


4, 175. 2 


4, 175. 2 


109.5 


109.5 


31 


NE. 


4, 067. 4 


4, 065. 2 


23.5 


21.3 


1 


NE. 


4,171.9 


4,169.0 


59.3 


56.4 


11 


SE. 


4, 167. 6 


4, 163. 9 


74.9 


71.2 


32 


SW. 


4,061.0 


4,061.0 


21.1 


21.1 


31 


NE. 


4,069.6 


4,065.8 


26.3 


22.5 


33 


NE. 


4, 098. 1 


4,095.6 


50.5 


48.0 


3 


NW. 


4, 114. 6 


4, 112. 8 


14.5 


12.7 



Date 
when 
depth 
to water 
was 
meas- 
ured. 



T. 18S.,R.27E. 

Wm. Dodd 

O. S. Pratt 

G. W. Waters 

T. 19S.,R. 26 E. 

M. L. Armstrong 

Dr. H. T. Bailey 

Mrs. Barrack 

Brophy windmill 

Craddock 

H.C.Dilman 

H. G. Lewis 

R. G. McBride 

Moore (stock well). . . . 

Mrs. W.J. O'Brine 

W.C.Rice 

Roy Scheerer 

L. D. Shattuck 

B.Smith 

Tull 

J.Wilcox 

L.C.Woods 

T. 19 S., R.27E. 
Whitehead ranch 

T. 20S.,R. 26 E. 

C. M. Baldridge 

D.N.Cluff 

Coy 

M. A. Crawford 

P. A. Dilman 

D. Gibson (pumping plant).. 
H. J. Hamilton (upper well). 
H. J. Hamilton (lower well). 

E. D.Harris 

J. H. Harris (house well) 

J. H. Harris (pumping plant) 

J. A. Higgins 

L.T.Jewell 

G.M.Kelley 

D. L. Martin 

Geo. Morteson 

M. Patterson 

A. Pipher 

W. H. Seaver, jr 

J. Skinner 

Soldiers Hole 

J. A. Thomsen 

Tom Hill windmill 

R.M. Truitt 

G. I. Van Meter 

Webb schoolhouse 

T. 20S..R. 27 E. 

T. H. B. Lovelady 

F.C.Myers 

Robt. Perrin 

T. 21S.,R. 26 E. 

Mrs. Beaumont 

John Burrows 

John Hornig 

Gus Johnson 

T. E. Latimer.. 

Miles McNeal 

Schoolhouse 

B. F. Silvey 

Lee Wyatt 



Dec. 20 
Dec. 17 
Dec. 20 



Jan. 29 

Jan. 28 

Jan. 27 

Dec. 23 

Dec. 23 

Jan. 24 

Jan. 27 

Jan. 27 

Jan. 27 

Feb. 2 

Feb. 1 

Jan. 29 

Jan. 27 

Jan. 24 

Jan. 27 

Jan. 27 

Jan. 31 



Jan. 
Jan. 



26 



Feb. 
Feb. 
Feb. 
Feb. 
Feb. 
Feb. 
Feb. 10 
Feb. 10 
Feb. 1 
Jan. 31 
Jan. 31 
Feb. 1 
Feb. 1 
Feb. 4 
Feb. 6 
Feb. 4 
Feb. 4 
Feb. 6 
Feb. 2 
Feb. 1 
Feb. 1 
Feb. 2 
Feb. 10 
Feb. 6 
Feb. 3 
Jan. 31 



Feb. 4 
Feb. 4 
Feb. 4 



Feb. 7 
Feb. 7 
Feb. 13 
Feb. 8 
Feb. 6 
Feb. 13 
Feb. 8 
Feb. 8 
Feb. 7 
Feb. 10 



OCCURRENCE AND LEVEL OF GROUND WATER. 



121 



Altitude of surface and depth to water at various wells and springs in Sulphur Spring 

Valley, Ariz. — Continued. 



Owner or designation. 



T.22S., R. 25 E. 

J. M. Byrns 

R. B. Fulcher 

T. 22 S., R. 26 E. 

Isaac Bailey (house well) 

W. H. Dietzman 

Double Dobe schoolhouse 

J. P. Emery 

Mrs. M. Francis 

R. Humphrey 

Schultz windmill 

F. H. Spaulding 

T. 22 S., R. 27 E. 

S. Feeney 

Wm. Wildman 

T. 23S..R. 26 E. 

R. A. Campbell 

Clayburn 

F.C. Frusch 

J. T. Gardner 

J. F. Green 

O.F. Hicks 

J.C. Moffet 

N. W. Stevenson 

T. 23 S., R. 27 E. 

H. J.Fox 

John Imsland 

T. A. Lagerfeldt 

C. A. Peckinpaugh 

Mrs. Pierce 

C. Ramsett 

G. H. Sharland 

J. Wellgehausen 

T. 23S.,R.28E. 

Andrew Pallay 

T. 24 S., R. 26 E. 

C.B.Holden 

W. D. Pierce 

T. 24 S., R. 27 E. 

A. H. Green 

C.A.Taylor 



Location. 



Sec- 
tion. 



32 



Quar- 
ter. 



NE. 
SW. 



NE. 
SE. 
SW. 

NW. 
NW. 
SW. 
NE. 
SW. 
NE. 



SW. 

SW. 



NW. 
NE. 
NW. 
SW. 
SE. 
SE. 
NW. 
NW. 
NE. 



NW. 
SW. 
SW. 
NE. 
SW. 
NW. 
SW. 
SE. 
SW. 
SE. 
SE. 



NE. 



NW. 
NW. 
NW. 



NW. 
NW. 
SE. 

NE. 



Altitude above sea 
level. 



Bench 
mark. 



Feet. 
4, 100. 4 
4,113.2 



4, 077. 9 
4, 150. 5 
4, 004. 5 
4,083.1 
4, 084. 6 
4,016.3 
4,051.1 
4,081.2 
4, 130. 6 



4,075.8 
4, 056. 



3,999.2 
4, 002. 8 
4,015.1 
4,003.2 
4, 067. 5 
4,041.7 
3,987.3 
4, 042. 9 
4, 008. 9 



4,093.6 
3,995.9 
4, 052. 8 
4,004.2 
3,985.2 
4, 036. 5 
4, 052. 9 
3, 987. 
a, 972.1 
3, 957. 6 
3,953.5 



4, 095. 5 



4, 058. 7 
4, 080. 5 
4, 064. 2 



3, 925. 5 
4,016.0 
3,928.4 
3,931.2 



Ground. 



Feet. 
4, 097. 3 
4,113.0 



4,076.1 
4,147.7 
4,003.5 
4, 082. 6 
4,084.3 
4,016.3 
4,051.1 
4,081.2 
4, 130. 6 



4, 075. 8 
4,053.8 



3,997. 

4, 000. 

4,011, 

4,003. 

4, 066 

4,041 

3,987, 

4,042.9 

4,007.8 



4, 092. 6 
3, 995. 9 
4, 052. 5 
4,001.6 
3,982.3 
4,033.0 
4, 048. 5 
3,987.0 
3,971.2 
3,954.6 
3, 952. 2 



4, 093. 8 



4,057.7 
4, 080. 5 
4,063.0 



3, 922. 6 
4,013.0 
3, 925. 
3,928.9 



Depth to 
water. 



Below 
bench 
mark. 



Feet. 
64.2 
74.0 



44.4 
111.7 
15.1 
44.2 
46.3 
20.9 
21.7 
50.6 
107.1 



77.3 



21.6 
49.0 
45.1 
45.1 
98.2 
79.5 
28.4 
42.5 
37.5 



139.7 
46.8 
99.9 
81.7 
64.7 
65.8 
85.1 
34.0 
43.7 
28.1 
32.8 



183.5 



100.1 
113.6 
104.0 



20.7 

107.1 

30.4 

14.5 



Below 
ground. 



Feet. 
61.1 
73.8 



42.6 
109.0 
14.1 
43.7 
46.0 
20.9 
21.7 
50.6 
107.1 



84.8 
75.1 



19.8 
46.6 
41.4 
45.1 
96.7 
78.8 
28.4 
42.5 
36.4 



138.7 
46.8 
99.6 
79.1 
61.8 
62.3 
80.7 
34.0 
42.8 
25.1 
31.5 



181.8 



99.1 
113.6 
102.8 



17.8 
104.1 
27.0 
12.2 



Date 
when 
depth 
to water 
was 
meas- 
ured. 



Feb. 11 
Feb. 11 



Feb. 8 
Feb. 7 
Feb. 14 
Feb. 8 
Feb. 8 
Feb. 15 
Feb. 11 
Feb. 11 
Feb. 14 



Feb. 
Feb. 



Feb. 15 
Feb. 22 
Feb. 14 
Feb. 22 
Feb. 20 
Feb. 20 
Feb. 22 
Feb. 15 
Feb. 14 



Feb. 19 
Feb. 20 
Feb. 19 
Feb. 22 
Feb. 22 
Feb. 9 
Feb. 9 
Feb. 22 
Feb. 23 
Feb. 23 
Feb. 23 



Feb. 21 



Feb. 17 
Feb. 20 
Feb. 17 



Feb. 23 
Feb. 22 
Feb. 23 
Feb. 23 



122 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 

Most of the flowing wells in both basins of the valley were drilled 
by ranchers long ago, and, according to a legend associated with prac- 
tically all of them, they were found to flow strongly, but were plugged 
or in some other way obstructed by the owners through fear that a suc- 
cessful artesian well would attract settlers and break up the grazing 
monopoly. Concerning no well, however, was this legend verified. 

THE NORTH BASIN. 

FLOWING WELLS. 

Flows have been struck in at least four wells in the north basin of 
Sulphur Spring Valley, but their yield is so small that they are almost 
valueless. Moreover, with possibly one exception, they are situated 
on low alkaline tracts where their water could not be used advanta- 
geously for irrigation. 

Well at 0. T. ranch. — A flowing well is situated 5 miles we t of 
Willcox, near the abandoned buildings of the old O. T. ranch, in the 
NE. i sec. 5, T. 14 S., R. 24 E. (PI. II in pocket). It is near the base 
of the slope and only a few feet above the very gently inclined plain 
that extends between the O. T. ranch and Willcox. The top of the 
well is 4,192 feet above sea level and about 60 feet above the barren 
flat. In a shallow dug well in the same locality the ground-water 
table is 11 feet below the surface, 4,181 feet above sea level, and about 
50 feet above the barren flat. The flowing well is cased at the top 
with a heavy iron pipe about 7 inches in diameter. According to the 
best information, the history of the well is as follows: A flow was 
struck about 166 feet below the surface and the well was at first fin- 
ished at this level. Later the flowing water was cased out and the 
drilling carried to 560 feet; but as no flow of consequence was found 
between 166 feet and 560 feet, the casing was drawn back and the 
water from 166 feet was again admitted. According to some reports, 
the original flow was stronger than the flow after the deep drilling 
had been done and the casing was drawn back. According to other 
reports, the flow was originally no stronger than it is at present. The 
water now discharges through an underground pipe into a reservoir 
that is used as a watering place for range cattle. The natural flow is 
adequate for this purpose except sometimes in the summer, when the 
supply may run short. A windmill, which was at one time erected 
over the well, is said to have drawn down the water to a level 6 feet 
below the surface. The analysis given on page 155 shows that the 
water is not highly mineralized, but contains a small amount of black 
alkali. It resembles the water in the shallow dug well at the same 
place, except that it contains a little more alkali. 



ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 123 

Paul Roger's well. — A well that has a small natural flow and is said 
to be 40 feet deep is situated on the premises of Paul Roger, near the 
center of sec. 21, T. 15 S., R. 24 E., about a mile east of Cochise 
(PL II) . This well is on low alkali ground, 4,137 feet above sea level, 
and only a few feet above the barren flat. It is in a locality of springs 
and water holes, and the ground-water table is practically at the 
surface. 

Frank Halderman's well. — A flow was struck in a well on the prem- 
ises of Frank Halderman, in the NW. J sec. 14, T. 16 S., R. 24 E., 
about 1J miles southwest of the barren flat and the same distance 
north of Servoss station (PL II). This well is at the foot of the 
ancient strand, on ground 4,-164 feet above sea level, and about 30 
feet above the barren flat. The ground-water table is about 10 feet 
below the surface. The well has a 6-inch iron casing at the top and 
extends to a depth of about 190 feet, where it is said to have entered 
a "dry" clay. The water overflows at the rate of a small fraction 
of a gallon a minute, and the length of time required for the casing 
to fill after water has been drawn out shows that the yield would be 
small if the well were pumped. The water was not analyzed, but does 
not appear to be highly mineralized. 

E. Brummet's well. — The only flowing well on the east side of the 
flat is a 6-inch cased well on the premises of E. Brummet, in the NE. \ 
sec. 35, T. 14 S., R. 25 E. It is situated between the ancient strand 
and the barren flat, at a point where a seepage spring is said to have 
previously existed. The top of the well is about 25 feet below the 
strand and about 20 feet above the flat. Indefinite reports say that 
a light flow was struck at about 150 feet and a "dry" clay entered at 
200 feet. This clay is said to have been penetrated by the drill to 
the depth of 513 feet, but to have yielded no water. A small amount 
of sulphureted water still flows from the well. 

NONFLOWING DEEP WELLS IN THE NORTH BASIN. 

Most of the wells in the north basin were sunk only short distances 
below the ground-water level ; but a few besides the flowing wells 
were carried to sufficient depths to give some information in regard 
to artesian conditions. In nearly all the deeper wells the water from 
lower sources rises at least to the ground-water level and in several 
it rises notably higher. 

The wells showing the most pressure were found southwest of the 
barren flat. The well of J. B. Cupp is situated near the southwest 
corner of the SE. J sec. 1, T. 17 S., R. 24 E., about one-fourth mile 
west of the railroad that leads from Cochise to Pearce, on ground 
4,264 feet above sea level, or 130 feet above the barren flat. The 
driller reports that this well is 125 feet deep; that the first water 
was struck at 70 feet and remained at that depth; that the second 



124 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

water was struck at 100 feet and rose within 40 feet of the surface; 
and that the third water was struck at 124 feet and rose within 20 
feet of the surface. When the well was visited, on October 20,1910, 
the depth to water was only 14 feet and a few weeks later it was 15 
feet. The water appears, therefore, to be lifted by artesian pressure 
to about 4,250 feet above sea level — that is, to 115 feet above the 
barren flat and 55 feet above the normal water level in the locality 
of the well. It rises fully to the level of the railroad and therefore 
higher than the surface of the land east and northeast of the railroad. 

The following wells in the same vicinity are more typical of the 
conditions that are usually found. All except the first were reported 
by G. H. Dean, the driller. In the well of W. M. Jenkins, in the 
NE. J sec. 34, T. 16 S., R. 24 E., the first water was struck at 78 
feet, the drilling was carried to 125 feet, and the water rose in the 
completed well to a level 73 feet below the surface. In the well of 
G. H. Dean, in the NE. \ sec. 15, T. 17 S., R. 24 E., water was struck 
at 200 feet, the drilling was carried to 224 feet, and the water rose 
within 196 feet of the surface. At the time of examination the water 
was found to stand 194 feet below the surface, or 4,189 feet above 
sea level. In the well of W. E. Ellison, in the SW. \ sec. 9, T. 17 
S., R. 24 E., the first water was struck at 275 feet, a second water- 
bearing bed was struck at 298 feet, and the water in the completed 
well stands 258 feet below the surface. In the well of W. H. Scofield, 
near the southwest corner of the NE. \ sec. 24, T. 17 S., R. 24 E., 
water was struck at 194 feet, a second water-bearing bed was struck 
at 208 feet, and the water in the completed well stands 178 feet 
below the surface, or 4,190 feet above sea level. 

The water in the 480-foot well of C. T. McGlone, at Willcox, was 
found by leveling to stand 4,154 feet above the sea, or about 20 feet 
above the barren flat, 3J miles south of Willcox. It stands only 1 
foot higher than the water in the shallow dug well on the same 
premises. 

A well 674 feet deep was at one time drilled for the Southern 
Pacific Co. about 400 feet west of the depot at Cochise and 125 feet 
south of the track. According to Robert Benzie, superintendent of 
railroad water supplies, clay containing small rocks was found in the 
upper 60 feet, below which a cemented deposit consisting of clay, 
pebbles, and bowlders — some of them a foot in diameter — was pene- 
trated. Water was struck at about 60 feet and was found at many 
lower horizons. Near the bottom the drill passed through 5 feet of 
yellow clay and discovered water that was too salty for use in loco- 
motives. An unsuccessful attempt was made to shut out the salty 
water by plugging the hole 180 feet below the surface, after which 
the well was abandoned. The water rose within 40 feet of the 
surface and was lowered only 4 feet when pumped at the rate of 
150 gallons a minute. 



ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 125 

THE SOUTH BASIN. 
FLOWING WELLS. 

Between Soldiers Hole and Four Bar ranch. — Along Whitewater 
Draw from Soldiers Hole to Douglas, a distance of over 25 miles, 
the ground-water table is nearly at the surface, and the water from 
the deeper sources will everywhere rise within a few feet of the top 
of drilled wells. Several flows have been struck between Soldiers 
Hole and the Four Bar ranch, but the information obtained in regard 
to most of them is indefinite and conflicting. 

Soldiers Hole is situated in the SE. \ sec. 7, T. 20 S., R. 26 E., 
at the west margin of the southern alkali flat and at the base of a 
rather steep stream-built slope. The story is that a troop of United 
States soldiers crossing this part of the valley in the early days and 
finding themselves without water dug a hole here and discovered a 
good and adequate supply at the depth of 4 feet. In 1884, accord- 
ing to the report, the hole was sunk to a depth of 35 or 40 feet, and 
a flow was struck that rose 18 inches above the surface and supplied 
a watering trough. In 1888 or 1889 the well, it is said, ceased flow- 
ing, the loss of artesian pressure being attributed by the old settlers 
to an earthquake that occurred about that time. At present there 
is nothing but a small gully to identify the spot, which was formerly 
a well-known landmark. 

A similar flowing well is said to have existed at one time a few 
rods south of Soldiers Hole, and still another to have been sunk 
about 1J miles south. The arrangement at the watering place a 
mile north of the Four Bar ranch indicates that the well there once 
overflowed into the troughs, but it is at present pumped by a wind- 
mill. 

One of the deepest holes in the valley was drilled on the Van Meter 
farm, in sec. 21, T. 20 S., R. 26 E., where the water level is about 10 
feet below the surface. This well was not a success, but no reliable 
information was obtained in regard to it. According to current re- 
port the drilling was carried to the depth of about 1,050 feet. It is 
said that a flow was struck at about 450 feet, but that the water 
stopped flowing when the drill reached greater depth. 

Wells at Douglas. — According to the records of the Copper Queen 
Co. flows were struck in two wells at the company's smelter west of 
Douglas. This smelter is at the axis of the valley a short distance 
north of the international boundary and is, therefore, on nearly the 
lowest ground in the valley. The flowing wells are near Whitewater 
Draw (PI. II) where the surface altitude is about 3,890 feet above 
the sea, and are 316 and 1,095 feet deep; their sections are given in 
Plate IX (p. 52). In the 316-foot well the first flow was struck in 
the bed of clay and gravel lying 146 to 187 feet below the surface; 



126 

when 191 feet was reached the natural flow amounted to about 25 
gallons a minute. In the 1,095-foot well the natural flow was about 
75 gallons a minute at a depth of 396 feet and about 150 gallons at 
434 feet. The strata at greater depths contributed little water, 
however, and the supply was shut off entirely when the casing was 
driven into the clay to 958 feet. The water in these two wells was 
not under much pressure and rose little if any higher than the water 
in the other smelter wells, which were drilled on slightly higher ground 
and in which the water stands about 10 feet below the surface. 

NONFLOWING DEEP WELLS IN THE SOUTH BASIN. 

A number of rather deep wells have been drilled in the vicinity of 
Douglas, but they are all on higher ground than the Copper Queen 
wells, and none of them now. The deepest of the nonflowing wells 
at the Copper Queen smelter is 559 feet deep and has a normal water 
level about 9 feet below the surface, or about 3,900 feet above sea 
level. The well at the Calumet & Arizona smelter, a short distance 
west of Whitewater Draw, is 296 feet deep and its water level is 37 
feet below the surface. In the city well west of Whitewater Draw, 
which is reported to be 287 feet deep, the water stands 27 feet below 
the surface, or about 5 feet below the level of the stream channel. 
In the drilled city well on the east side of the draw the water stands 
17 feet below the surface. In the 884-foot drilled well at the old 
Douglas waterworks the depth to water is reported to be about 120 
feet or practically the same as in the shallow wells at the same place. 
During 1910 and 1911 a test well was being sunk at the county hos- 
pital in the NW. J sec. 3, T. 24 S., R. 27 E., on the flood plain of 
Whitewater Draw, where the depth to water is 10 feet. In the aban- 
doned hole, 325 feet deep, the water stood considerably below the 
10-foot level, and in the second hole no new supply had been struck 
when the drilling had been carried to 510 feet. (See PL IX, p. 52.) 

A well 314 feet deep was drilled in 1910 on the premises of S. J. Robb, 
in the NE. J sec. 21, T. 22 S., R. 26 E. The water rose within 29 feet of 
the surface, or about 9 feet higher than the water level in the shallow 
well at the same point. On the James Brophy ranch, at the southern 
margin of the same section, a hole was sunk to 510 feet, but only 
nonwater-bearing clayey deposits were found below 90 feet. 

The railroad well at Kelton Junction is 650 feet deep and is lined 
with perforated casing to the bottom. The ground-water level is 
about 135 feet below the surface, and, according to F. O. Mackey, 
the driller, the water from the deep beds rises to approximately this 
level, indicating no essential increase in artesian pressure. 



ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 127 

HIGH-LEVEL FLOWS. 

Several of the very shallow wells that tap the waters lying above 
the main body of ground water overflow in wet seasons. The cienega 
well, in sec. 25, T. 18 S., R. 27 E., and the Holdeman well, in the SW. 
J sec. 17, T. 17 S., P. 27 E., are examples. These wells, of course, 
give no indication of the head of the deeper waters. 

FLOWING WELLS IN ADJACENT BASINS. 

SAN PEDRO VALLEY. 1 

Many flowing wells have been struck in San Pedro Vallej^. They 
are found in the vicinity of Benson, between Benson and a point 
about 11 miles above that city, and in an area nearer the head of 
the valley. The Southern Pacific Co. has two 10-inch wells at 
Benson, 707 and 808 feet deep, in which water from a depth of about 
500 feet rose to the surface and overflowed at the rate of 42 gallons a 
minute. (See fig. 9, p. 61.) A 4-inch well, 590 feet deep, in sec. 27, 
T. 18 S., P. 21 E., is reported to flow about 80 gallons a minute, 
but the natural yield of most of the flowing wells is only a few gallons a 
minute, and only a small total area is irrigated with water from these 
wells. The well at the State school at Benson has a depth of 1,505 
feet and is reported to be the deepest well in the valley, but owing 
to its high elevation its water level is 8 feet below the surface. All 
these wells apparently end in valley fill, but it is not possible to de- 
termine from the well logs what portion of this fill is ordinary stream 
deposit and what portion may consist of lake sediments. 

SAN BERNARDINO VALLEY. 

San Bernardino Valley consists in the main of stream-built slopes 
partly overlain by beds of lava, but along its axis a broad, flat-bot- 
tomed stream valley has been carved. Near the Mexican border this 
stream valley has been sunk practically to the ground-water level, 
and consequently springs issue from the valley sides, and flows are 
obtained by drilling into the deposits beneath the valley floor. Nine 
flowing wells have been drilled on Slaughter's ranch, some of them 
on the valley bottom and others on low terraces. They pass through 
valley fill interbedded with lava, and range from 340 to 675 feet in 
depth, flows having been struck in several beds below 200 feet. The 
water is warmer than the normal for this region, its temperature 
ranging between approximately 83° and 90° F. It is used for irri- 
gation even in the winter season. 

1 Information furnished by W. T. Lee, of the U. S. Geological Survey, and by F. O. Mackey, driller. 



128 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

SAN SIMON VALLEY. 

San Simon Valley lies in a great rock trough, and most of its surface 
consists of stream-built slopes that descend from the mountain borders 
toward the central axis. A stream valley carved along the axis 
descends toward the Gila with a grade of approximately 15 feet 
per mile. A well recently drilled at San Simon station is 850 feet 
deep and has a diameter of 10 inches at the top and 6 inches at the 
bottom. The drill first passed through 145 feet of clay, sand, and 
gravel; then through 430 feet of homogeneous dense blue clay or 
shale, and then through 275 feet of clay, caliche, and sand. (See 
fig. 8, p. 59.) Flows were struck in strata of sand, the highest of 
which lie immediately below the 430-foot clay bed. This well is 
situated near the depot, about 3,612 feet above the sea and about 
60 feet above the ground-water level. It is at the base of the stream- 
built slope but near the brink of the upland that overlooks the axial 
draw or stream valley. (See fig. 24.) The water is said to overflow 

Altitude above" g> ■;. 

sea level ,£ | 

«? "2 _,-! \ 

Feet 
4,500 



3,500 



2,500 




Clay, sand, and gravels 
Clay bed- 
Artesian-water beds- 



Horizontal scale 
5 10 15 



Figure 24 — Profile across San Simon Valley along railroad and sections of wells at San Simon station. 

at the top of a pipe 24 feet above the surface. When the well was 
visited in December, 1910, it had been sunk to only 710 feet and the 
flow was small, but the yield of the completed well was estimated by 
the driller to be at least 150 gallons a minute. Other flowing wells 
have been drilled more recently. 

Flows have been struck in a valley leading from the Pinaleno 
Mountains northeastward toward Gila River. About 15 flowing 
wells reported in this valley, in the southwestern part of T. 8 S., 
R,., 26 E., and adjacent parts of the township next south, range in 
depth from 210 to 672 feet and in yield from 5 to 80 gallons a minute, 
with the exception of one well 350 feet deep, in the NW. J sec. 32, 
which was reported to yield about 500 gallons a minute. 

PROSPECTS IN SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY. 
FLOWS FROM ROCK FORMATIONS. 

To permit flowing wells the rock formations must have a certain 
definite arrangement and structure. With certain exceptions the 



ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 



129 



following conditions are necessary: The rocks must include porous 
or creviced strata through which the water can pass, and these strata 
must be sufficiently exposed in the high areas to imbibe rainfall. 
The water-bearing strata must dip toward the valley, but their dip 
must be so gentle that they are still within reach of the drill in the 
lowest parts of the valley. Above the water-bearing strata there 
must be a bed of water-tight material which is so extensive, so con- 
tinuous, and so free from faults and fractures that it will confine the 
water below, allowing it to accumulate under sufficient head to raise 
it to the surface in wells that puncture the confining bed in the low 
areas. These relations are shown in figure 25. 

The mountains bordering Sulphur Spring Valley are composed in 
large part of igneous rocks that do not bear much water. The 
Pinaleno, Chiricahua, Perilla, Galiuro, and Winchester mountains 
consist chiefly of igneous rocks, and rocks of this class occur over 
large areas in all of the other ranges. Some water is carried in the 
crevices of hard limestones and quartzites that occur extensively in 
the Dos Cabezas, Swisshelm, Little Dragoon, and Mule mountains 




Figure 25.— Ideal section of an artesian basin in stratified rocks. A , Water-bearing stratum; B, C, confin- 
ing beds; D, E, flowing wells; F, level to which the reservoir formed by the water-bearing bed is filled. 
After M. L. Fuller. 

and to a less extent in other ranges, and water also exists in the more 
porous Cretaceous sandstones, found chiefly in the Mule Mountains. 

The beds of limestone, quartzite, and sandstone dip at all angles 
and in many directions. Along the southwestern flank of the Dos 
Cabezas Range they dip sharply toward the valley; farther back in 
the mountains they stand almost vertical. In a large part of the 
Dragoon and Little Dragoon ranges the formations dip steeply toward 
the valley, but in some places they dip in the opposite direction. 
Moreover, the angle of dip changes radically within short distances 
and locally the strata are vertical or overturned. In the Swisshelm 
Mountains the stratified beds for the most part dip steeply away from 
the valley. In the Mule Mountains there is a great variety of dips, 
but the main body of the Cretaceous beds inclines toward the valley 
at a high angle. Nowhere were the rock strata seen to descend from 
the high lands toward the valley with a continuous gentle gradient 
such as would indicate artesian conditions. 

The strata that might bear water are not generally covered with 
competent confining beds, and the rocks, both Paleozoic and Creta- 
ceous, are so generally fractured and so extensively faulted that there 
82209°— wsp 320—13 9 



130 

is practically no hope that they anywhere form an artesian system. 
The unfavorable conditions will be more fully realized by comparing 
the actual structure (see fig. 26) in a portion of the Mule Mountains 
with the ideal artesian basin shown in figure 25. Of course the rocks 
are not everywhere so badly deformed as in the area shown in 
figure 26, yet this section is representative of the rock structure of 
the region. 

The flowing wells in this valley and in San Pedro, San Bernardino, 
and San Simon valleys are all supplied from the valley fill. Drilling 
into the rock formations would generally be very expensive and there 
is no indication that it would anywhere result in finding a flow. 

If bedrock of any kind is struck in a test well, the prospects are 
poor for obtaining a flow by drilling deeper, and if granite, schist, or 
porphyry is encountered the drilling should be stopped. However, 
the younger basaltic lava, frequently called mal pais, found in deep 
drilling near Douglas (see p. 68), is interbedded with the valley fill 
and is not an unfavorable indication. Indeed the flowing wells in 
San Bernardino Valley are supplied from beds below such lava. 

Limestone 

igneous dike-yd^~=^V Limestone and shale 

/r± Xtt^^t 1 — >h^_ Jo, rlgneous dike 

_- . Schist" 

Limestone Quartzrte ^<<$\ 



Figure 26.— Section of rocks near Bisbee, Ariz., showing faulting and absence of artesian structure. After 
F. L. Kansome, Bisbee folio (No. 112), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904. 

FLOWS FROM VALLEY FILL. 
GENERAL FEATURES. 

The sediments in Sulphur Spring Valley are saturated practically 
to the level of the lowest parts. New supplies of water are from time 
to time poured into the valley and sink into the gravelly upper parts 
of the stream-built slopes. The water beneath the slopes has accu- 
mulated till it stands above the level of the central flats and conse- 
quently moves slowly toward these low areas where it reappears at 
the surface and evaporates. In the upper parts of the slopes the 
valley fill consists largely of gravel, but farther down in the valley 
the gravel gives way to alternating beds of clay and sand. (See fig. 
27.) Beneath the center of the valley these beds are nearly level, but 
beneath the slopes they curve upward. The gravel and sand are 
porous and therefore allow water to percolate through them, but 
the clay is so dense that it is relatively water-tight. The water 
which sinks into the gravel in the upper parts of the slopes and travels 
toward the central axis becomes confined below the layers of clay, 
and the water which accumulates back of it places it under pressure. 



ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 



131 



This pressure may become so great that when the clay layers are 
punctured by the drill the confined water will escape to the surface, 
forming flowing wells (fig. 27). If the clay layers were perfectly 
impervious the head of water would probably be great enough to 
produce flows with strong pressure over considerable areas, but in 
fact they allow so much water to escape that flowing wells have been 
struck in only a few specially favorable localities, and in most of 
these the pressure is slight. 




UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS 



Impervious clay 



Porous sand and 
gravel above ground- 
water table 



Porous sand and 
gravel below ground- 
water table 



Impervious bedrock 



Figure 27.— Diagrammatic section showing artesian conditions in Sulphur Spring Valley, a, Dry hole 
which if sunk deeper would strike rock without finding water; b, dry hole which if sunk deeper would find 
water; c, shallow pump well; d and e, flowing wells. 

SOTJTH BASIN 

In the south basin there is some prospect for flows along the axis of 
the valley from east of Kelton to the southern extremity of the region 
here considered. Flows are likely to be found on any part of the low 
flat in T. 20 S. and T. 21 S., and anywhere on the flood plain of White- 
water Draw below this flat, but the prospects are probably best on 
the part of the flat lying close to the steep west slope and in those 
sections of the draw in which ground water is nearest the surface. 
The flows thus far obtained have been struck relatively near the 
surface, and the data at hand indicate that the water in the strata 
reached in the deep wells is under little if any better head than the 
shallower water. In view of the unfavorable conditions developed 
by the deep wells already sunk in the south basin it is doubtful 
whether any more deep drilling for flowing wells would be justified in 
this part of the valley. 

The flows that could probably be obtained in certain localities by 
sinking wells to moderate depths are likely to have so low a head 
that the yield will be small or the supply will be available only on 
alkali soil. Though some irrigation could perhaps be accomplished 
with flowing wells, the indications are that even with the utmost 



132 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

development of artesian supplies no important amount of irrigation 
from flowing wells is possible. The ground water must be recovered 
mainly by pumping. 

NORTH BASIN. 

The few flowing wells in the north basin are all supplied from com- 
paratively shallow sources, their yield is small, and with possibly one 
exception they are located on low alkali soil. They are of no practical 
value for irrigation. Flows of this kind could probably be obtained 
over a considerable area surrounding the barren flat. In the Cupp well 
the water rises notably above the ground-water table and stands at a 
considerable elevation above the upper limit of alkali soil. This well 
and several other nonflowing wells with water under pressure, as also 
the flowing well at the O. T. ranch, give reason for the hope that flows 
of value may yet be struck in narrow tracts near the base of the slopes 
above the area of alkali soil. 

The thick bed of dense homogeneous clay in which several of the 
deepest wells in the north basin end and which was penetrated to the 
depth of about 200 feet at Willcox (see p. 57), would, without doubt, 
be competent to confine water under considerable pressure, and if it 
is widely distributed and is underlain by water-bearing materials it 
may serve as the cover of an artesian system. Whether flowing wells 
of economic value can be obtained from strata below this clay can be 
determined only by drilling. The prospects are too uncertain to 
warrant deep drilling by any settler of ordinary means, but as the 
underground waters are of vital importance in the agricultural 
development of the region the community as a whole can afford to 
sink a well to a sufficient depth to make the test. Drilling should 
not be continued, however, after granite, porphyry, or other bedrock 
is reached. In order to have reasonable prospects of success the well 
should be put down on land where the depth to water is not very 
great, but in order to make the test of the most practical value it 
should be located outside of the zone of alkali soil. 

Artesian prospects have not been as thoroughly explored in the 
north basin as in the south basin, but complete explorations will 
probably show that artesian supplies are at best only locally valuable 
and that pumping affords larger possibilities for irrigation 

QUALITY OF GROUND WATERS. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
SUBSTANCES DISSOLVED IN WATER. 

The rocks which lie near the surface are exposed to weathering 
agencies that disintegrate and decompose them, thereby forming 
certain mineral compounds, some of which are more or less soluble. 
Water which falls as rain contains little or no dissolved mineral 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATERS. 133 

matter, but when it enters the ground and percolates through the 
earth it gradually takes into solution soluble substances with which 
it comes in contact, and consequently ground water always contains 
dissolved mineral matter. As long as this matter is in solution it is 
invisible, but when the water evaporates, as in a teakettle or steam 
boiler or on the surface of the shallow-water areas in Sulphur Spring 
Valley, the soluble matter is left behind and forms a crust or scale. 

Ground waters differ greatly in the total amount of substances they 
contain in solution and also in the proportions of the different kinds 
of substances. Most of the mineral compounds dissolved by the water 
consist of two parts each: (1) A base, or positive radicle, and (2) 
an acid or negative radicle. When a compound is taken into solu- 
tion its positive and negative radicles become partly dissociated from 
each other. Among the bases, or positive radicles, that occur most 
largely in ground waters are calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium 
(Na), and potassium (K); among the acid or negative radicles that 
occur most largely are the carbonate radicle (C0 3 ), the bicarbonate 
radicle (HC0 3 ), the sulphate radicle (S0 4 ), and chlorine (CI). 

Sodium and potassium are known as alkali bases, and calcium and 
magnesium as alkaline-earth bases. Most waters contain more 
calcium than magnesium and more sodium than potassium, but the 
relative amounts of the alkaline-earth bases and the alkali bases differ 
greatly. Since sodium and potassium act alike in many respects they 
are frequently estimated together by the analyst, and their combined 
mass is often reported as sodium. Water rich in calcium and mag- 
nesium is said to be hard and water containing only small amounts 
of these constituents is said to be soft. 

When by normal evaporation the dissolved substances are thrown 
out of solution the negative radicles recombine with the positive 
radicles, again forming compounds. Some of the commonest sub- 
stances thus precipitated are sodium chloride (common salt), sodium 
sulphate (Glauber's salt), sodium carbonate (soda, or black alkali), 
calcium sulphate (gypsum), calcium carbonate (limestone), mag- 
nesium sulphate (Epsom salt), and magnesium carbonate. Calcium 
sulphate and sodium carbonate are not likely to be precipitated from 
the same water. 

METHOD OF INVESTIGATION. 

One hundred and twenty samples of water were collected from 
typical wells and springs, most of which are in the valley, but a few 
of which are situated in the adjacent mountains. These samples 
were analyzed in the laboratories of the Arizona Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, by Dr. W. H. Ross, of the station staff. The 
methods of analysis are those described for irrigating waters in Pro- 
ceedings of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. 1 The 

i Circ. Bur. Chemistry No. 52, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1910. 



134 WATER RESOURCES OP SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

total dissolved solids and the chlorine, bicarbonate radicle, and 
carbonate radicle were determined in all samples, the sulphate 
radicle was determined in nearly all, and the calcium and magnesium 
were determined in 17 representative samples. Permanent hardness 
and black alkali were determined by the modification of Hehner's 
test given under the heading " Black alkali," in Circular 52 of the 
Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture. The 
permanent hardness is expressed as calcium sulphate (CaS0 4 ), and 
the black alkali as sodium carbonate (Na 2 C0 3 ). The alkali bases 
(sodium and potassium) were not determined but their amounts can 
be approximately calculated. The analyses are given in the table 
on pages 154-159, the constituents being stated in parts per million. 
In addition to the analysis of samples in the laboratory a number of 
tests were made in the field, and several analyses were obtained from 
other sources. 

AMOUNTS OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS. 

TOTAL SOLIDS. 

The smallest amount of dissolved solids found in any sample from 
Sulphur Spring Valley was 128 parts per million; the largest amount 
found in any sample was 7,154 parts per million, or more than 50 
times as much. The water with only 128 parts was taken from the 
well at Hooker's ranch; the water with 7,154 parts, from the well 
on the school section 3 miles southeast of Willcox. 

As shown in figure 28, waters with lowest miner alization are found 
near the north end of the valley; the nine samples taken north of the 
J. H. ranch have an average content of only 168 parts per million, 
and all but one have a content of less than 200 parts. Next to the 
waters from the north end of the valley rank those from the upper 
and middle portions of the slopes adjacent to the Chiricahua and 
Swisshelm mountains, four samples of which contained less than 200 
parts per million and most of the others contained but little more 
than 200 parts. A few of the samples from the mountain regions 
contained only slight amounts of mineral matter, the water from the 
springs at Gabe Choate's, in Turkey Creek Canyon, having only 100 
parts per million. 

Thirteen samples of water contained more than 1,000 parts per 
million. Of these one was obtained east of Douglas, several along 
Whitewater Draw, several near the barren flat in the north basin, 
and the rest in an area that lies east of Willcox, between the barren 
flat and the north end of the Dos Cabezas Range. Only about one- 
fourth of the valley samples contained more than 500 parts per 
million, and these are found over comparatively small areas (fig. 28). 
Throughout most of the valley the ground waters are not highly 
mineralized. 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATERS. 



135 




Figure 28.— Map of Sulphur Spring Valley, showing the approximate amounts, in parts per million, 
of dissolved solids in the ground waters. 



136 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

CHLORINE. 

For most waters the estimation of chlorine gives an approximate 
measure of the amount of common salt that would be deposited on 
evaporation, 100 parts of chlorine yielding about 165 parts of salt. 
In the samples that were tested the chlorine content ranged between 
3.6 and 2 ; 941 parts per million, which is proportionately nearly 
fifteen times as great a range as that of total solids. The sample 
having only 3.6 parts was taken from a well in the SE. J sec. 28, T. 
12 S., R. 24 E.; the sample having more than 2,941 parts was taken 
from the school section well 3 miles southeast of Willcox. 

In general, the smallest amounts of chlorine are found in the waters 
near the north end of the valley. Sixteen out of a total of eighteen 
samples x from the area north of the Circle I ranch contained 10 parts 
per million or less, whereas among all the other samples taken in the 
valley only twenty-one contained 10 parts or less. Most of these 
twenty-one samples from the region south of the Circle I ranch were 
obtained on the slopes adjacent to the Chiricahua and Swisshelm 
mountains, but several were obtained in the area between the Circle I 
ranch and the barren flat, on the flat south of Soldiers Hole, and on 
the slope adjacent to the Dragoon Mountains. 

The saltest waters occur in an area that lies north of the barren 
flat and east of Willcox, these being, with a single exception, the 
only waters found whose chlorine content exceeds 1,000 parts per 
million. . 

In the north basin the chlorine content tends to increase from the 
borders toward the alkali flat and the region east of Willcox. In 
some localities the transition appears to be gradual but in others 
it is remarkably abrupt. For example, the water from the well of 
O. II. Mayhew, near the center of sec. 11, T. 14 S. ; R. 25 E., contains 
only 11 parts per million of chlorine, whereas the water from some of 
the wells on the adjacent Craig farms is perceptibly saline, and the 
water from H. C. Martin's shallow well, a little over a mile distant, 
contains 1,785 parts of chlorine. The areas that yield saline water 
are few and small, water with more chlorine than 100 parts per 
million having been found in the north basin only east of Willcox 
and in several wells between Cochise and the flat (fig. 29). The 
674-foot railroad well at Cochise also yielded saline water. 

In the waters of the south basin the amount of chlorine tends in 
general to increase southward. The waters from the Swisshelm 
slope and the portions of the Chiricahua and Dragoon slopes that 
lie south of the divide apparently contain somewhat less chlorine 
than the waters from the Mule Mountain slope and the slope east of 
Douglas. Some of the waters that underlie the flat south of Soldiers 

i In several of these samples the chlorine was determined by field tests. 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATERS. 



137 



32, 
"30 




mW 



Figuee 29.— Map of Sulphur Spring Valley, 

of chlorine 



showing the approximate amounts, in parts per 
in the ground waters. 



million, 



138 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Hole contain more chlorine than the waters below the adjacent 
slopes., but in most of the samples from this shallow-water district 
the chlorine content was small. The most saiine waters found in the 
south basin come from wells along Whitewater Draw near the inter- 
national boundary. 

SULPHATES. 

The amounts of the sulphate radicle found in the samples col- 
lected in the valley range between 1.4 and 1,315 parts per million, 
which is a range comparable to that of chlorine. The water with 
only 1.4 parts was obtained from the well of Minnie K. McHerron, 1 
mile north of the Circle I ranch; the water with 1,315 parts from the 
well of Frank Do an, 3 miles east of Douglas. 

The sulphates, like the chlorides, occur hi the smallest quantities 
near the north end of the valley. The thirteen samples obtained 
from the area northwest of a straight line drawn from the Circle I 
Hills to the O. T. ranch had an average sulphate content of only 6.3 
parts per million, twelve of the samples having less than 10 parts 
per million. Among all the other samples in which the sulphate 
radicle was determined, only three had less than 10 parts per million 
of this constituent. One of these three samples was taken from the 
well of R. E. Sampson, near Leslie Creek, another from the well at 
McNeal station, and another from the well at the so-called Snake 
windmill — all on the slope that extends from the Swisshelm Mountains. 

Six of the samples tested had a sulphate content of more than 500 
parts per million. Two of these were obtained from the area west 
of Willcox, one near the flat east of Cochise, one on the slope east of 
Douglas, and two along Whitewater Draw at points relatively near 
the Mexican border. 

Except in the gypsiferous area east of Douglas the sulphates have 
a distribution approximately similar to that cf the chlorides, as 
can be seen by comparing figures 29 and 30. In the north basin the 
sulphates increase in general from the borders toward an area that 
includes the alkali flat and the region east of Willcox, the area over 
which they occur in considerable quantities being small. (See fig. 
30.) The water below the flat south of Soldiers Hole and near 
Whitewater Draw for some distance south of this flat contains only 
moderate amounts of sulphates, although in general it contains 
somewhat more than the waters beneath the adjacent slopes. Sam- 
ples from several wells near the axis of the valley in the vicinity 
of Douglas contained much larger amounts. In the area of highly 
mineralized water east of Douglas the sulphates are unusually 
abundant, although the amount of chlorine in this water is not great. 
In the water from Frank Doan's well, for instance, the sulphate 
content is 1,315 parts per million, but the chlorine content is only 
21 parts. 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATERS. 



139 




Figure 30.—: 



Map of Sulphur Spring Valley, showing the approximate amounts, in parts per million, 
of the sulphate radicle in the ground waters. 



140 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 
CARBONATES AND BICARBONATES. 

Carbonates and bicarbonates are readily converted into one 
another and should therefore be considered together. In the pres- 
ence of an abundant supply of carbon dioxide the carbonate radicle 
changes into the more or less indefinite bicarbonate radicle. This 
change occurs when calcium carbonate (limestone), itself nearly 
insoluble, is taken into solution. If, on the other hand, carbon 
dioxide is removed from the water, as occurs when the water is 
heated or when lime is added, a reverse process takes place, the 
bicarbonate being converted into carbonate, as a result of which 
calcium carbonate is precipitated. 

The smallest amount of the bicarbonate radicle found was 55 
parts per million; the largest was 1,141 parts, or about 20 times as 
much. Less difference therefore exists in the bicarbonate content 
than in the content of total solids, and much less than in the amounts 
of sulphates and chlorides. In this respect the conditions in Sul- 
phur Spring Valley are similar to ' those in other areas that have 
been investigated. The lowest bicarbonate content was found in 
the water at Hooker's ranch, and the highest in water from a shallow 
excavation on the farm of C. H. Cook, several miles southwest of 
Willcox. 

The distribution of bicarbonates follows in a general way the dis- 
tribution of the other constituents that have been considered. (See 
fig. 31.) The waters near the north end of the valley contain the 
smallest amounts and those underlying the slope adjoining the Chi- 
ricahua Mountains rank next. In the north basin the largest amounts 
are found near the barren flat and in the area of high mineralization 
east of Willcox. In the south basin the bicarbonates show a slight 
general increase toward the south, although the sample most heavily 
charged with this constituent was taken from a shallow well on the 
farm of L. J. Hamilton, north of the Four Bar ranch. 

Five samples from the valley have less than 100 parts per million 
of the bicarbonate radicle, four of which were obtained near the 
north end. Only three samples from the entire valley have over 
500 parts of the bicarbonate radicle and only seventeen have more 
than 300 parts. 

The carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) was reported in nine samples, all of 
which were obtained in the north basin. The lines on the map 
(fig. 31) show the bicarbonate content but they would have practi- 
cally the same position if they were taken to represent the carbon 
dioxide in both forms. 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATERS. 



141 






\ 



Bonita 



P.O. 



•0\ 









10 



Sierra Bonita Ranch 



_£" , ,a grahAm co ^ 



-tFiinlOO 

AHAM 
iCHISE 



•■■■ :;.■"<.',?> 

"* •& 



Areas in which the 
ground waters gen- 
erally have perma- 
nent hardness 



Areas in which the 
ground waters gen- 
erally contain some 
"black alkali" but 
have little or no per- 
manent hardness 




20 Miles 



T09 Q 3O'. . 



Figure 31.— Map of Sulphur Spring Valley, showing the approximate amount, in parts per million, 
of the bicarbonate radicle in the ground waters and the presence of permanent hardness or black alkali. 



142 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA, 
SODIUM AND POTASSIUM. 

The alkali bases (sodium and potassium) were not determined 
directly but their abundance is approximately shown by Hehner's 
and the chlorine and sulphate determinations. A water with per- 
manent hardness (as indicated in the column under permanent hard- 
ness, p. 154) contains enough of the alkali bases to combine with all 
of the chloride and sulphate radicles except that which is shown by 
Hehner's test as combined with calcium. A black- alkali water (as 
indicated in the column under black alkali, p. 154) contains enough 
of the alkali bases to combine with all of the chlorine and all of the 
sulphate radicle and also with as much of the bicarbonate or car- 
bonate radicle as is shown by Hehner's test. 

In distribution the alkali bases probably follow more closely the 
chlorine than any other constituent which has been considered. 
In some of the hard waters, such as those east of Willcox, how- 
ever, the alkali bases are not as abundant proportionately as 
chlorine. The water from the shallow well of H. C. Martin, for 
instance, does not contain enough sodium and potassium to satisfy 
all the chlorine. This fact is shown in the analysis by the relative 
values of the permanent hardness and the sulphate content, and it 
is also shown by the fact that the residue on evaporation was hygro- 
scopic, a property given by the chlorides of calcium and magnesium. 
In some of the black-alkali waters, on the other hand, the alkali 
bases are proportionately more abundant than chlorine. For in- 
stance, in the shallow water on the farm of C. H. Cook, southwest of 
Willcox, the chlorine content is not very high but the alkali bases 
are present in sufficient quantity to combine not only with all of 
the chlorine but also with all of the sulphate and carbonate and with 
nearly all of the abundant bicarbonate. 

CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM. 

The alkaline-earth bases (calcium and magnesium) were determined 
in 17 samples and can be approximately estimated in the others. 

The smallest quantities of calcium and magnesium are found in 
the pure waters near the north end of the valley and in the strongly 
black-alkali waters in the shallow-water districts. Among the sam- 
ples that were examined for the alkaline-earth bases, the smallest 
calcium content was found in the shallow black-alkali water on the 
farm of C. H. Cook, southwest of Willcox, and the next to the small- 
est was found in the water at Hooker's ranch. Waters which con- 
tain a considerable amount of the carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) , such as 
the shallow water on the Cook farm, are not likely to contain much 
calcium or magnesium. 

The alkaline-earth bases are present in the greatest quantities in 
the gypseous waters east of Douglas and in the highly mineralized 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATERS. 143 

waters east of Willcox. In the water from Frank Doan's well there 
are 334 parts of calcium and 61 parts of magnesium, and these two 
constituents are sufficiently abundant to combine with all of the 
bicarbonate radicle and with a large amount of the sulphate radicle. 
The small quantities of calcium and magnesium in the water from 
the well at the Douglas waterworks indicate, however, that the area 
of hard waters east of Douglas is small. 

It should be noted that the highly mineralized waters several miles 
east and southeast of Willcox are radically different from the highly 
mineralized waters in some parts of the low region surrounding the 
barren flat. Thus the water from the school-section well southeast 
of Willcox contains 268 parts of calcium and 135 parts of magnesium, 
and the water from the well of Mrs. A. L. Craig contains 168 parts of 
calcium and 68 parts of magnesium, whereas the shallow water on 
the farm of C. H. Cook contains only 9 parts of calcium and 3 parts 
of magnesium. The radical difference between these two classes of 
water is shown by Hehner's test. 

A similar difference exists among the highly mineralized waters in 
the south basin, as can be seen by comparing the water from Frank 
Doan's well with that from the shallow well of L. J. Hamilton. The 
total solids are high in both of these waters, but the calcium and 
magnesium are high in one and low in the other. 

SUMMARY. 

The waters of the valley can be divided according to their mineral 
contents into the following groups : 

Group 1: Waters that contain only small quantities of dissolved 
solids. These are found chiefly near the north end of the valley, the 
water from the well at Hooker's ranch being typical. 

Group 2: Waters that contain moderate quantities of dissolved 
solids. They are found beneath the upper and middle portions of 
most of the stream-built slopes. Northwest of Willcox and on the 
Chiricahua and Swisshelm slopes they generally contain small amounts 
of black alkali, as, for example, the water from the West well. On 
the slopes adjacent to the Dos Cabezas, Little Dragoon, Dragoon, 
and Mule mountains they are likely to have some permanent hard- 
ness, as, for example, the water from the well at Pearce. 

Group 3: Waters that contain appreciable quantities of black 
alkali and are therefore without permanent hardness. They contain 
relatively large amounts of sodium but only small or moderate 
amounts of calcium and magnesium. They are found in the vicinity 
of Willcox, in the area between Willcox and the barren flat, on the 
low plain extending southeastward from the flat, in other parts of 
the shallow-water tract of the north basin, on the lowest parts of the 



144 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

flat that extends southward from Soldiers Hole, and in certain local- 
ities along Whitewater Draw. The shallow water on the farm of 
C. H. Cook is an extreme example of this group. 

Group 4: Waters that have great permanent hardness but yield 
only small amounts of common salt. Water of this type is found 
east of Douglas, but does not occur over an extensive area. 

Group 5 : Waters that are both hard and saline and are rich in all of 
the constituents here considered. Water of this type occurs chiefly 
in the area east and southeast of Willcox, but it was also found in 
the well of Paul Roger east of Cochise, in George Giragi's well about 
5 miles northwest of Douglas, and in a shallow well in the valley of 
Whitewater Draw west of Douglas. 

The division of the underground waters of the region into the five 
groups that have been given is of course rather arbitrary, but it is 
helpful in setting forth general differences of great importance. 
There are waters of intermediate composition, and no sharp geo- 
graphic boundaries can be drawn for any of the groups. Likewise 
the maps shown in figures 28, 29, 30, and 31 indicate general differ- 
ences in the composition of the ground waters, but do not take account 
of small local differences. Moreover, they are based on too small a 
number of analyses to make great refinement possible. 

RELATION OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS TO DERIVATIVE ROCKS. 

Ground waters found in bolson valleys obtain part of their mineral 
matter by contact with the rock formations before they leave the 
mountains and part from the valley fill through which they later 
percolate. Igneous rocks yield little soluble substance except as 
they decompose. On the other hand, limestones are slowly dissolved 
by water that contains carbon dioxide, and most sedimentary rocks 
include a certain amount of soluble matter that was either deposited 
when the sediments were laid down or was precipitated later by 
percolating water. No doubt the valley fill derived from sedimentary 
rocks likewise contains more soluble matter than that derived from 
igneous rocks. 

The quantity of mineral matter in the ground waters of Sulphur 
Spring Valley has an obvious relation to the kind of rocks that occur 
in the surrounding mountains, water of slight mineral content being 
found near ranges of igneous rock and more heavily mineralized 
waters near ranges composed largely of limestone or other sedimen- 
tary beds. The portions of the Pinaleno, Galiuro, and Winchester 
mountains that drain into this valley consist almost entirely of igne- 
ous rocks and agglomerates derived from igneous rocks, and this fact 
evidently accounts for the small amount of mineral matter in the 
ground waters between these ranges. The Dos Cabezas, Little 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATERS, 145 

Dragoon, and Dragoon mountains contain great masses of limestone, 
and the Little Dragoon Mountains contain calcareous conglomerate 
with limestone pebbles. Consequently the water beneath the slopes 
adjacent to these ranges (not including the low tracts of shallow 
water) contains distinctly larger quantities of mineral matter than 
are found in the northern water. 

The portion of the Chiricahua Mountains that drains into this 
valley consists predominantly of igneous rocks, and accordingly the 
water beneath the extensive slope projected from these mountains 
ranks next to the northern water in its mineral purity. The Swiss- 
helm Mountains contain considerable limestone, covered to a large 
extent by a thick mass of igneous rocks. The water beneath the 
adjacent slope contains more dissolved solids than the northern 
water but less than the average water beneath the Dos Cabezas, 
Little Dragoon, and Dragoon slopes. The Mule Mountains consist 
largely of sedimentary rocks, and this fact probably accounts for 
the somewhat larger mineral content of the water of the slope ad- 
jacent to these mountains than in the water of the Swisshelm slope, 
on the opposite side of the valley. So far as known the rock forma- 
tions in the drainage basin of Sulphur Spring Valley contain no 
beds of gypsum, salt, or other readily soluble substance, and ac- 
cordingly the ground waters taken as a whole contain far less dissolved 
matter than the waters in regions where such beds occur. 

The kind of soluble substance derived from igneous rocks also 
differs from the kind derived from most sedimentary rocks. 
Igneous rocks contain considerable quantities of calcium, magnesium, 
sodium, and potassium, but only small quantities of chlorine and 
the sulphate radicle. Hence, when these rocks decompose the bases 
can combine to only a small extent with the chloride and sulphate 
radicles. To a greater extent they combine with the carbonate and 
bicarbonate radicles derived from the carbon dioxide of the atmos- 
phere. Thus, sodium carbonate, as well as carbonates of calcium and 
magnesium, is produced, and the ground water in a region of igneous 
rocks is likely to be black-alkali water. Whenever in its later his- 
tory the sodium carbonate encounters the sulphate or chloride of 
any weaker base a reaction is likely to take place whereby sodium 
sulphate or sodium chloride is formed. 

The prevailing black-alkali ground waters of Sulphur Spring 
Valley are no doubt causally associated with the abundance of 
igneous rocks in the adjoining mountains. Some of the waters of 
the slopes adjacent to sedimentary rocks have permanent hardness, 
but most of those underlying the slopes adjacent to igneous rocks 
are of the black-alkali type. The three most northerly samples to 
which Hehner's test was applied have permanent hardness, but the 
82209°— wsp 320—13 10 



146 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

values are small and are probably not to be regarded as very signifi- 
cant. 

The hard water found over a small area east of Douglas is evi- 
dently related to the gypsum deposits in that locality. It differs 
from other waters in the valley in containing predominant quanti- 
ties of calcium and the sulphate radicle, which are the two con- 
stituents of gypsum. The deposits of gypsum are small, and hence 
it is not surprising that their influence over the character of ground 
water does not reach far. The water nearest the deposits (in the 
NW. I sec. 15) is strongly gypseous; the waters from the two wells 
near the north margin of section 4 are clearly of the same type, but 
their permanent hardness (gypsum content) is less than one-fourth 
as great ; and the water from the old waterworks well at Douglas ap- 
pears to be completely out of the sphere of gypsum influence, for it 
is reported to have no permanent hardness and to contain only 39 
parts of calcium. 

It is not known whether the high mineralization of the water east 
of Willcox is in any degree caused by formations in the adjacent 
Dos Cabezas Range that contain unusual amounts of soluble matter. 
No such formations were observed, but the range was not carefully 
examined. 

RELATION OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS TO WATER LEVEL. 

The differences in the composition of the ground waters are not due 
entirely to differences in the derivative rocks. In the north basin 
both surface and ground waters move toward the low central area. 
(PL II, in pocket). The surface waters deposit a large percentage 
of their load of undissolved sediments before they reach the low flat, 
and the ground waters carry almost no insoluble suspended matter; 
but both the surface waters and the ground waters that reach the 
low flat bring with them dissolved matter. Wherever ground water 
lies close to the surface it is drawn up by capillary action, the soil 
acting in the same manner as the wick in a lamp. Evaporation, 
therefore, takes place over the area in which the ground water is 
within reach of capillary action. When water evaporates it leaves 
its dissolved solids, and consequently the soluble products of weather- 
ing throughout the entire drainage area of the north basin tend to 
become concentrated within the relatively small, low tract in which 
the surface waters collect and in which the ground waters come near 
the surface. 

The analyses in the table (pp. 154-159) and the maps based on them 
(figs. 28 to 31) show conclusively that concentration has taken place 
in the low shallow-water areas. They also show that in general the 
differences due to concentration are greater than those due to the 
character of the derivative rocks. 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATERS. 147 

The soluble substances left behind by the evaporating water are 
deposited at or near the surface where evaporation takes place, but 
are to some extent washed down to the ground-water level by the 
water of rains or floods that enters the ground. Consequently the 
upper layer of ground water in the shallow-water districts is likely to 
be highly mineralized, and purer waters are found in many places by 
sinking to deeper horizons and casing out the first water. This con- 
dition is shown by the analyses of the two samples collected on the 
farm of C. H. Cook. The samples taken from the upper layer of 
ground water, only 7 feet below the surface, was highly mineralized; 
the sample from a cased well 42 feet deep was very much better. It 
will be noted that the two samples differed but little in their contents 
of calcium and magnesium. These two bases were no doubt precipi- 
tated as carbonates, thus forming compounds which are so difficultly 
soluble that they were not redissolved as were the alkali salts. 

Data collected from soil borings and open wells indicate that in 
most soils of the shallow-water areas capillary action will lift water 
at least 5 feet above the water table, but that it will not generally 
lift it as much as 10 feet, except possibly in the clay of the barren flat. 
These data agree in general with conclusions reached by other ob- 
servers. Although the mineralized waters are, with certain excep- 
tions, found where the water table is near the surface, yet they are 
not limited to the areas over which capillarity is effective nor do they 
have a definite relation to any specific depth to water. Moreover, 
mineralization is not confined to the upper layer of water but may 
be found in deep-seated waters, as, for instance, in the saline water 
tapped by the railway well at Cochise. 

The north basin probably had an interior drainage and an interior 
underground circulation during much of the time since the rock 
trough came into existence, and concentration of soluble substances 
no doubt took place in the shallow- water areas of the past. As the 
basin was gradually built up by the deposition of sediments the 
soluble substances were, as a rule, carried upward by capillary action 
and were reconcentrated near the surface of the shallow-water areas. 
It is conceivable, however, that certain accumulations of salt may 
have become buried and may still remain far below the present sur- 
face to impregnate the waters that come in contact with them. 
Owing to a shifting of the shallow-water areas waters thus impreg- 
nated may be struck in localities where the water table is at a con- 
siderable depth below the present surface and where there are no 
surface indications of alkali. Such an explanation would seem to 
account best for the mineralized water found east of Willcox and for 
the deep saline water at Cochise. Another reason why accumulations 
of soluble substance occur beyond the present limits of capillarity 
may possibly be found in the fact that in the past, when the ancient 



148 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

lake existed, the water table stood higher and the evaporating area 
was much larger than it is now. 

In most of the area of mineralized water east of Willcox the ground 
water is at present much too far below the surface to be raised to 
the surface by capillarity, but there is evidence, aside from the 
quality of the water, that this area may once have belonged to the 
shallow-water belt. The northern arm of the Dos Cabezas Range is 
very low and narrow, and it did not furnish much sediment for the 
valley fill. For this reason it would be expected that the alkali flat 
would extend near the base of this range, which, however, is not the 
case. The area of mineralized water is at present covered for the 
most part with wind-borne deposits of comparatively recent origin. 
These could easily have been blown into a part of the shallow-water 
belt, thereby covering the saline accumulations to such a depth that 
they can not be carried to the surface by capillary processes. Against 
this explanation must be set the fact that the mineralization east of 
Willcox is somewhat different from that of most of the waters near 
the barren flat, although it is much the same as that found in the 
water from Roger's well east of Cochise. 

Concentrating processes similar to those described for the north 
basin have also taken place and are still taking place in the south 
basin, and some highly mineralized waters exist in the southern tracts 
of shallow water. However, owing to the surface and underground 
drainage out of the south basin, the evaporating area is much smaller 
than that in the north basin and probably has been smaller in past 
epochs. The analyses seem to show that mineralized waters are found 
over a larger area in the north basin than in the south basin, and this 
difference may well be due to the fact that in the south basin a large 
portion of the soluble salts was carried off instead of being concen- 
trated by evaporation. 

RELATION OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS TO UNDERGROUND 
CIRCULATION. 

Plate I (in pocket) shows that in the north basin the ground waters 
move from the borders toward the alkali flat, and that in the south 
basin they have a general southward movement. It may reason- 
ably be supposed that as the water continues in its underground 
course it finds new supplies of soluble matter and consequently 
increases its miner alization. In the north basin the mineral content 
increases rather gradually from Hooker's ranch to the flat, and 
there is a more or less gradual increase down the other slopes, but 
it is not possible, with the fragmentary data at hand, to determine 
to what extent this increase is due to normal, progressive acquisi- 
tion and to what extent it is due to concentrations remaining from 
past times, or to some other cause. In the south basin the general 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATERS. 149 

increase in mineralization toward the south no doubt results partly 
from differences in the derivative rocks, but it may in a measure be 
due to the gradual acquisition of soluble matter as the water moves 
southward. 

RELATION OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS TO USES OF WATER. 

DRINKING AND CULINARY USE. 

The effects of specific quantities of mineral substances dissolved 
in water on the health of persons that drink the water are not well 
understood. The effects of the same water on different persons are 
widely different, and many of the supposed effects, both curative 
and injurious, are no doubt imaginary rather than real. Water from 
a spring or artesian well is generally in more popular favor than 
water of the same quality pumped from an ordinary well. It some- 
times happens that virtually the same kind of water is in one com- 
munity avoided as unfit to drink and in another is prized for its 
medicinal properties. The effect of any mineral ingredient is gen- 
erally greater on a person unaccustomed to the water than on one 
who has used it for a long time. Moreover, a person may at first 
object to a certain water because of the taste given by its dissolved 
minerals, but the same person after drinking the water for some time 
may become unable to detect any taste in it and may even prefer it 
to less mineralized water. 

The sense of taste is a valuable though not an infallible guide to 
the wholesomeness of water used for drinking. Distinctly poisonous 
ingredients, such as salts of arsenic, lead, or copper, might be present 
in small but dangerous quantities without being detected by the taste, 
and deadly typhoid germs may exist in what appears to be excellent 
water, but large quantities of most of the common mineral constit- 
uents, such as might be harmful to health, are perceptible to the 
taste and are obnoxious to one not accustomed to the water. 

Sodium chloride, or common table salt, is of course not harmful in 
small quantities, but water yielding more than a few hundred parts 
per million is unpalatable. Four hundred parts per million is per- 
ceptible to the taste, but will not generally be noticed by one habitu- 
ally using the water. The water from the well of Greer Craig, in the 
NE. i sec. 11, T. 14 S., K. 25 E., which contains about 160 parts 
of chlorine (equivalent to about 260 parts of common salt), is re- 
garded by the users as "good soft water." The water from the well 
of Stanley Craig, in the NE. \ sec. 10, in the same township, which 
contains about 280 parts of chlorine (equivalent to about 460 parts 
of common salt), is regarded as usable but "only fairly good." The 
waters from the two wells of H. C. Martin and from the well of Mrs. 
A. L. Craig, which contain, respectively, 1,225 parts, 1,785 parts, 



150 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

and 782 parts of chlorine (see table, p. 155), are all salty to the 
taste and are regarded as "bad." The water containing 1,225 parts 
of chlorine has, however, been used for drinking and cooking when 
no other supply was at hand. Water yielding about 1,500 parts per 
million of common salt constitutes the only supply for drinking and 
culinary purposes at the Utah mine, Fish Springs, Utah. 1 Although 
this water is decidedly salty to the taste, it is not known to be injurious 
to the health of those who use it. 

Sodium sulphate, which with water of crystallization constitutes 
Glauber's salt, and magnesium sulphate, which with water of crys- 
tallization constitutes Epsom salt, are laxative, and waters yielding 
several hundred parts per million of these salts are prized by some 
persons for their medicinal properties. In Minnesota it was found 
that waters yielding as high as 1,000 parts of sodium sulphate were 
used for drinking and for cooking. In Iowa the public water sup- 
plies for several cities contain from 500 to more than 800 parts of the 
sulphate radicle, and these waters are used widely for drinking and 
cooking. A rough estimate of the amount of sodium sulphate that 
might be yielded by the waters whose analyses are given in this report 
can be obtained by subtracting the permanent hardness from one and 
one-half times the sulphate radicle (S0 4 ). This computation can be 
expressed by the following formula : 

Sodium sulphate = 1.5 (S0 4 ) — permanent hardness. 

For waters without permanent hardness the equation becomes 
simply — 

Sodium sulphate =1.5 (S0 4 ). 

Calcium sulphate does not possess the same medicinal properties as 
sodium sulphate and magnesium sulphate. In the analyses the per- 
manent hardness is all reported as calcium sulphate, but in fact it is 
due in part to magnesium sulphate. 

Sodium carbonate is corrosive to animal tissues if present in con- 
siderable quantity. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is not as inju- 
rious as sodium carbonate (washing soda), but it may be converted 
into the carbonate when, by boiling or some other process, carbon 
dioxide is removed. The well-known Apollinaris mineral water, which 
contains an equivalent of about 2,100 parts per million of sodium 
bicarbonate, 2 is used exclusively for drinking by some persons, appar- 
ently without harmful effects. 

Calcium compounds in moderate amounts are probably not inju- 
rious to most persons, although they are known to have an effect on 

1 Meinzer, O. E., Ground waters in Juab, Millard, and Iron counties, Utah: Water-Supply Paper U. S. 
Geol. Survey No. 277, 1911, p. 120. 

Anderson, Winslow, Mineral springs and health resorts of California, 1892, p. 322. 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATERS. l5l 

the blood pressure and are believed by some authorities to be instru- 
mental in producing certain diseases. 

The ground waters of the greater part of Sulphur Spring Valley are 
of good quality for drinking and culinary uses, at least in so far as 
the mineral constituents tested are concerned. Obj ectionable amounts 
of chlorine were found only in waters of the small area east of Will cox 
and in the water from a very few wells in other localities. In general 
the water in the shallow-water areas does not contain excessive quan- 
tities of this constituent. Waters containing objectionable amounts 
of the sulphates are also confined to small areas. A large proportion 
of the waters of the valley are- so-called black-alkali waters, but most 
of these yield only small amounts of soda, and only a few of them in 
their natural state contain the normal carbonate. 

Where the water is shallow and there are evidences of alkali at the 
surface, it is advisable to drill or bore to some depth below the water 
table and to insert casing, so that the upper layer of ground water will 
be excluded. In the area of mineralized waters east of Willcox and 
east of Douglas better drinking and culinary supplies could probably 
also be obtained by drilling deeper than the first water. 

Disease germs are found only in waters that have been polluted. 
On farms and ranches safety can be attained by keeping privies, cess- 
pools, and other sources of pollution at some distance from the wells. 
As the ground water generally moves in the direction of the slope 
of the surface, structures that might be sources of pollution should be 
placed on the down-slope side of the well. In cities and villages with- 
out waterworks and sewers it is difficult to prevent contamination, 
especially if the water is near the surface, but a certain amount of 
protection can be obtained by drilling to some depth and inserting 
tight casing. Where waterworks have been installed, as at Bisbee, 
Douglas, and Courtland, and in other communities in which the entire 
supply is derived from one source, as at Pearce, it is of course impor- 
tant to protect the source carefully. 

TOILET AND LAUNDRY USE. 

Soft water is water that lathers readily, and hard water is water 
that consumes much soap before it will form a lather. Calcium, mag- 
nesium, and certain other bases destroy the power of soap to produce 
a lather because they decompose it and form curdy compounds insol- 
uble in water, but sodium and potassium do not have this undesirable 
quality. Therefore the hardness of water is approximately propor- 
tionate to the amounts of dissolved calcium and magnesium. For 
toilet and laundry uses it is desirable to have water that will lather 
readily and consequently water containing large amounts of calcium 
and magnesium is undesirable. 



152 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Boiling decreases the soap-consuming capacity of water by causing 
the precipitation of a part of the calcium and magnesium, the bicar- 
bonate radicle being converted into the carbonate radicle and the 
latter combining with calcium and magnesium to form insoluble 
compounds. 

Those portions of the calcium and magnesium that can not be 
removed by boiling are said to produce permanent hardness, and are 
expressed in the analyses as calcium sulphate. 

Most of the waters of Sulphur Spring Valley are either soft or 
only moderately hard. More than two-thirds of the samples analyzed 
were of the black-alkali type, which, if not naturally soft, can be 
softened by boiling. The worst waters for washing are the perma- 
nently hard waters east of Willcox and east of Douglas. They can 
be softened by means of sodium carbonate or caustic soda but not 
by boiling. 

BOILER USE. 

When water is heated and concentrated in boilers, much of the 
dissolved substance is precipitated, forming scale and sludge, which 
diminish the heating power of the fuel and may eventually ruin the 
boilers. Silica and compounds of calcium, magnesium, iron, and 
aluminum are scale-forming materials; among these, calcium and mag- 
nesium are usually present in much the largest quantities. Generally 
the calcium occurs in the scale either as a carbonate or a sulphate 
and the magnesium as an oxide. Boiler scale varies in hardness 
with the composition of the water, the principal precipitates that 
make the scale hard being calcium sulphate and magnesium oxide. 
If water is boiled under atmospheric pressure in a preheater before 
being admitted into the boiler, soft scale is precipitated, but the 
hard-scale ingredients are left in solution. Much of the soft scale 
can be precipitated by treating the water with slaked lime and much 
of the hard scale by treating it with soda ash. 

Foaming in boilers is the forming of bubbles that do not readily 
break, and hence are likely to carry water out with the steam, thus 
interfering with the proper action of the engine. Dissolved sub- 
stances of all kinds probably increase the tendency to foam, but 
as sodium and potassium compounds are much more soluble than 
most of the other substances commonly found in water they remain 
in solution in the boiler water after most of the other substances have 
been precipitated, and therefore the tendency to foam is approxi- 
nately proportionate to the amount of these two elements in the 
boiler feed. 

Water that will corrode iron is, of course, deleterious wherever that 
metal is used. Under the high temperatures in boilers, magnesium, 
iron, and aluminum may be precipitated as hydrates, and the acid 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATERS. 153 

thus released may cause corrosion. The carbonate and bicarbonate 
radicles counteract this tendency, but the sulphate, and especially 
the chloride radicle, increase it. 

Most of the ground water in Sulphur Spring Valley is of fairly 
good quality for use in boilers. The highly mineralized waters east 
of Willcox and the gypseous waters in the vicinity of Douglas will 
deposit so much hard scale that they are unfit for boiler use, but the 
waters in other parts of the valley will, as a rule, deposit only small 
or moderate amounts. The waters which, according to Hehner's 
test, are without permanent hardness will not deposit hard scale, 
and, as has been shown, these waters constitute the prevailing type 
in this valley. Foaming, especially in locomotive boilers, may be 
expected with the saline waters, such as are found east of Willcox 
and with the strong black-alkali waters, such as are found in certain 
localities in the shallow-water tracts, especially in the beds nearest 
the surface. Foaming is also likely to occur if gypseous waters, such 
as those east of Douglas, are softened with soda ash. The more 
typical waters of the valley will not cause much trouble by foaming. 
Some of the highly mineralized waters east of Willcox will prove 
corrosive because of their high content of both magnesium and 
chlorine. 

IRRIGATION USE. 

The mineral content of water affects its value for irrigation, which 
is one of the most important uses that will in the future be made of 
the water in Sulphur Spring Valley. This subject is discussed on 
pages 160-171. 

ANALYSES. 

The analyses in the following table were made by Dr. W. H. Ross, 
of the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station. 



154 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



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156 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



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160 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

ALKALI. 

By O. E. Meinzer. 
CONCENTRATION IN SOIL. 

Soils contain various soluble substances, which are dissolved by 
the moisture in the soil and are absorbed with the moisture by the 
plants. Some of the dissolved substances are essential to plant 
growth, but others are injurious if present in large quantities. Soils 
in arid regions are less thoroughly leached than the soils of humid 
regions; hence they generally contain greater quantities of certain 
soluble materials that are of value as plant foods and may also con- 
tain undesirable amounts of injurious salts. 

In some places soluble substances have been so concentrated that 
they have become harmful. Such concentrations may be due in 
part to several processes, but have been chiefly brought about by the 
evaporation of standing surface waters and of the ground water of 
shallow-water tracts, whereby the water was removed, but its load 
of dissolved salts was kept near the surface. As this water evaporated 
new supplies reached the low tracts, and these in their turn were 
also quietly taken into the atmosphere and made to deposit their 
loads of dissolved salts near the surface. By this process, continued 
for a very long time, the soils of the shallow-water tracts of Sulphur 
Spring Valley have become burdened with the minerals which the 
waters of the valley carry in solution. As the valley filled with 
sediments the accumulated salts were in part buried, but in part 
they were raised by the ground waters that were soaking upward and 
were reconcentrated in the surface soil. 

Calcium and magnesium carbonates and calcium sulphate, which 
are the most common alkaline-earth compounds, are less soluble than 
the alkali salts. As ground waters are as a rule very dilute solu- 
tions, calcium and magnesium may have formed a large percentage 
of the dissolved matter in the original supply and yet, being the first 
to be precipitated, may be relatively less abundant in the concen- 
trated soil solutions. As the alkali salts (chiefly the chloride, sulphate, 
carbonate, and bicarbonate of sodium) are the principal soluble 
constituents of the soil and enter most largely into the soil solutions, 
the term alkali is commonly used to include all of the constituents 
that are dissolved by the soil moisture. 

EFFECT ON PLANT LIFE. 

The subject of alkali and its effect on plant life has been ex- 
tensively studied and is discussed in the publications of the Bureau 
of Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, in several bulle- 



ALKALI. 161 

tins of the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station/ and in many 
other publications. 

It is therefore sufficient in this paper to state briefly a few general 
facts that are essential to an intelligent discussion of the alkali 
problem involved in irrigating with well water in Sulphur Spring 
Valley. 

Plants differ in the amount of alkali that they can endure. The 
following summary statement on this subject was made by C. W. 
Dorsey, of the Bureau of Soils: 2 

Of the crops usually grown in the irrigated districts of the West, Kafir corn, sorghum, 
sugar beets, and barley are probably the most resistant to alkali * * *. Alfalfa 
is also quite resistant after a good stand has been secured, but in its younger stages 
it is a sensitive crop. Wheat and corn are usually classed as sensitive to alkali. Rye 
and oats undoubtedly are quite resistant, although not as thoroughly tested as some 
of the crops previously mentioned. 

The percentage of alkali in the soil that can be endured by any 
given plant depends on the texture of the soil, the methods of cultiva- 
tion, and other conditions. Since clay soil can hold more water than 
sandy soil, a given amount of alkali in a clay soil will be dissolved 
in more water than the same amount of alkali in a sandy soil, and, 
therefore, the soil solution is more dilute. On the other hand, the 
alkali is less easily washed out of clay soils and the hardening effect 
of black alkali is greater. 

The different kinds of alkali differ greatly in their injurious effects 
on plants. Sodium carbonate is more injurious than sodium chloride, 
and sodium chloride is more injurious than sodium sulphate. Mag- 
nesium chloride and magnesium sulphate are also injurious. 

The effects of sodium carbonate, or so-called black alkali, are 
described as follows by Forbes : 3 

Black alkali, though a white substance, is so named because, in contact with the 
vegetable matter of wet soil, it produces the dark appearance so well and unfavorably 
known to the irrigation farmer. It is the same in composition as common washing 
soda, which resembles the caustic principle of wood ashes extracted in common 
lye. * * * 

The limit for black alkali in a soil varies with the kind of crop and the nature of the 
soil. Sugar beets, for instance, are more hardy than grains, and plants from arid 
countries usuwlly endure more alkali than those from humid regions. Clay soils, more 
than sandy ones, are injured in tilth by black alkali. In general, 0.10 per cent of 
black alkali in the top 2 feet of soil will prove destructive to most crops. 

The injurious effects of black alkali are brought about in various ways; it destroys 
the tilth of heavy soils, causing them to become cloddy and difficult to cultivate. 
Also, in presence of water, it dissolves the humus or vegetable mold in the soil and 

1 Forbes, R. H* Salt River valley soils: Bull. Arizona Agr. Exp. Sta. No. 28, 1898; Timely hints for 
farmers— Black alkali, white alkali: Idem, No. 34, 1900; The river irrigating waters of Arizona, their char- 
acter and effects: Idem, No. 44, 1902; Timely hint£ for farmers— The rise of the alkali: Idem No. 45, 1902. 

* Alkali soils of the United States: Bull. Bur. Soils No. 35, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1906, p. 25. 

» Forbes, R. H., Timely hints for farmers— Black alkali: Bull. Arizona Agr. Exp. Sta. No. 34, 1900, 

82209°— wsp 320—13 11 



162 WATER EESOUECES OF SULPHUR SPEING VALLEY, AEIZONA. 

thus allows of its removal. But the worst effect is its corrosive action directly upon 
the plant at or near the surface of the ground, where, especially in hot, dry weather 
after irrigation, the alkali, as an effect of evaporation, collects in the form of a crust. 

Sodium chloride and sodium sulphate are commonly called white 
alkali. The amount of sodium chloride, or common salt, that most 
ordinary crops can endure is generally considered to be between 0.25 
and 0.5 per cent of the total soil; and the amount of sodium sulphate 
is regarded as about 0.5 per cent or somewhat more. Soils that con- 
tain as much as 0.5 per cent of total alkali may cause trouble, and if 
the alkali is largely of the black type a much smaller per cent is likely 
to prove serious. 

METHODS OF INVESTIGATION. 

As the alkali of the soil is found chiefly in the shallow-water 
areas where pumping is a possibility, the problem of irrigation with 
ground water involves the whole alkali problem and demands con- 
sideration not only of the alkali in the irrigation water but also of 
the alkali already in the soil. It was not feasible in this investiga- 
tion to obtain as full information on the alkali in the soil as was 
desired, but enough data were obtained to warrant general conclu- 
sions in regard to irrigation with ground water. 

Samples of soil were taken at 93 points widely distributed over the 
areas that show alkali symptoms. With a few exceptions they were 
obtained by boring with a soil auger. Usually the boring was carried 
to a depth of 6 feet, but at some points it was stopped before this 
depth was reached, either by the presence of caliche or by some other 
obstruction; at a few points the boring was carried below 6 feet. 
Generally tests were made of the soil from the first foot, of the soil 
from the second foot, and of all the soil obtained below the second 
foot. A part of the samples were tested only for total soluble salts 
by means of the electric bridge, but the samples from 47 points were 
examined in the laboratory for total water-soluble salts (reported as 
total soluble solids), for chlorine (reported as sodium chloride), and 
by the modified Hehner's test for permanent hardness (reported as 
calcium sulphate) and black alkali (reported as sodium carbonate). 
The results of the analyses are given in the table (pp. 172-181) and 
those for the north basin are plotted on figure 32, the values shown 
being the average for the entire depth to which the boring was carried. 

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION. 

Alkali is found in largest quantities in the clay of the barren flat of 
the north basin, but it is also found in the soils of a considerable area 
surrounding the flat (fig. 32). North of the barren flat alkali occurs 
in considerable quantities over a district that extends about to the 
north margin of township 14 but includes a belt extending some 



ALKALI. 



163 




LEGEND 

Total soluble solids 
(per cent of total soil) 

O Less than. 20 

CD .20 to .40 

.40 to .80 

© .80 to 1.50 

© 1.50 to 3.00 

• More than 3.00 



CD 
_>> 

03 

C 

a 

> £ 

2 



<$> Less than .40 

$ .40 to .80 

♦ .80 to 1.50 

♦ 1.50 to 3.00 

♦ More than 3.00 

Black alkali 

(per cent of total soil) 



□ (None 


tn 


ED Less than .05 
E .05 to. 10 


>> 

13 
c 
ctf 


a .10 to. 20 


a 


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1 


■ More than .50 

J 


J 


Ancient beach 





Outer limit of area 
having depth to water 
of less than 15 feet 



Inner limit of 
mesquite belt 



Contour interval 100 feet ' r 
Figure 32.— Map showing alkali in soil of north basin, Sulphur Spring Valley. 



164 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

distance north of Willcox and perhaps other small areas in township 
13. It is absent, however, over much of the sandy region east of 
Willcox. East of the barren flat it occurs in a belt from 1 to 2 miles 
wide, and west of the flat in a somewhat narrower belt. Alkali is 
also found in a tract that lies east of the Arizona Eastern Railroad 
and extends from the south end of the flat for some distance beyond 
Sulphur Springs. As nearly as could be estimated the area in the 
north basin over which alkali exists in amounts that may prove 
injurious covers about 75 square miles, exclusive of the barren flat, 
or 125 square miles in all. 

The alkali area lies in general inside the mesquite belt and the 
ancient beach ridge and within the area having a depth to ground 
water of less than 15 feet. A small amount of alkali soil has been 
found outside of these limits and some good soil within them (fig. 32). 

In the south basin alkali is found on the flat that extends south of 
Soldiers Hole and a short distance north of that point, and on the 
bottom lands of Whitewater Draw from the flat to the Mexican 
border. The area affected by alkali in the south basin is, however, 
small as compared with the area similarly affected in the north basin. 
Altogether it does not cover much over 25 square miles. 

DISTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF ALKALI. 

The most serious fact in regard to the alkali in the soil is that it 
includes a large percentage of sodium carbonate or black alkali. 
This undesirable substance was found at every depth in 33 out of 
the 44 borings examined in the laboratory, 1 and in only seven borings 
was its amount less than that of the calcium sulphate. Of the 37 
borings which had an excess of sodium carbonate over calcium sul- 
phate, 29 contained more than 0.1 per cent of sodium carbonate, 
24 contained more than 0.2 per cent, and seven contained more than 
0.5 per cent, six of the seven being from the barren flat. In 15 borings 
sodium carbonate comprised 25 per cent or more of the total alkali, 
in eight borings it comprised 40 per cent or more, and in three borings 
it comprised 50 per cent or more. As high as 60 per cent of sodium 
carbonate was found in the alkali of individual samples. 

The largest percentage of sodium carbonate is found in the alkali 
of the area north of the barren flat. In this area were obtained eight 
of the 15 borings (including the boring in the NE. J sec. 2, T. 15 S., 
R. 25 W., and the boring on the flat one-fifth mile from the north 
margin), whose salts contained more than 25 per cent sodium car- 
bonate. In this area also were obtained seven of the eight borings 
with more than 40 per cent, and all three of the borings with more 
than 50 per cent. Practically all of the alkali soil obtained north of 
the flat was high in sodium carbonate. 

1 Three very shallow samples are not included. 



ALKALI. 165 

High percentages of sodium carbonate were also found in the alkali 
of the eastern portion of the tract south of the barren flat and in the 
alkali from the two borings on the flat south of Soldiers Hole. 

Most of the material from the borings on the barren flat itself con- 
tains over 0.5 per cent of sodium carbonate, yet so rich is this mate- 
rial in the other soluble salts that the sodium carbonate forms a rela- 
tively small percentage of the total alkali. 

Large amounts of calcium sulphate and sodium chloride with no 
sodium carbonate were found in the soil of the low land east of 
Cochise, and relatively small amounts of sodium carbonate were 
found in the borings in the western part of the tracts south of the 
barren flat. The meager data obtained for the southern part of the 
south basin indicate that the alkali along the lower course of White- 
water Draw also contains little or no sodium carbonate. 

Sodium chloride forms rather more than one-half of the alkali on 
the barren flat, but it constitutes a very small part of the alkali north 
of the flat, and in most parts of the valley it is not abundant. 

Although the number of analyses from which conclusions can be 
drawn is small, the relation of the sodium carbonate to the deriva- 
tive granitic and porphyritic rocks is clearly shown. The intense 
concentration that has taken place on the barren flat seems to have 
been selective, the sodium carbonate having been to some extent 
neutralized or left behind and the sodium chloride accumulated. 

RELATION TO WATER TABLE AND DRAINAGE. 

Alkali accumulates in places where water stands at or so close to 
the surface that it is lifted by capillary action within the reach of 
the atmosphere. Hence it is to be expected that the low, poorly 
drained, shallow- water areas will contain the most alkali, and this is 
in fact the general condition in both basins of Sulphur Spring 
Valley. (See table, pp. 172-181, and fig. 32.) 

But although capillarity is not believed to be effective for more 
than 10 feet, some alkali exists where the depth to water is over 15 
feet, and a large amount of alkali occurs in the zone in which the 
depth to water is between 10 and 15 feet. It is possible that in some 
of these places capillarity acts through a greater height than 10 feet, 
or that the roots of certain native plants have drawn up alkali 
where it was below the reach of ordinary capillarity, or that alkali is 
accumulating in other conceivable ways. Probably, however, the 
concentrations occurring more than 10 to 15 feet above the present 
water level were formed chiefly in a past epoch when the water, at 
least in the north basin, is known to have stood higher than it does 
at present. Such an explanation accords with the fact that in areas 
having a depth to water of less than 10 feet the alkali was generally 



166 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

found most abundant near the surface, and in areas having a depth 
to water of more than 15 feet the alkali, if present in appreciable 
quantities, was generally found most abundant at some depth below 
the surface. 

In the borings made in rather light porous soils at several points 
southwest of Willcox the alkali was found to increase downward, 
although the depth to water is only 6 or 8 feet. This fact, together 
with the alkaline character of the upper layer of water, as indicated 
by the sample taken on Mr. Cook's farm, suggests that the alkali, 
originally deposited near the surface, was later leached downward. 
As the ground water is at present nearly or quite within reach of the 
atmosphere through capillarity, there is danger that under slightly 
changed conditions the alkali in the subsoil and water will be returned 
to the surface, where it may interfere with agriculture. 

On the barren flat the alkali shows no marked tendency to decrease 
downward. Alkali is about as abundant in the lower as in the upper 
part of a 6-foot boring, and a few borings carried 12 feet below the 
surface show virtually no decrease. In a number of borings the 
greatest concentration was found in the second foot, but this may be 
a temporary condition and not significant. 

Rude estimates based on the analyses lead to the conclusion that 
within the upper 6 feet of soil the total quantity of alkali in the north 
basin is at least ten times as great as the total quantity in the south 
basin. This difference has no doubt resulted from difference in the 
conditions of drainage. In the north basin the soluble solids have for a 
long time been brought together and conserved in the central shallow- 
water area, but in the south basin they have been carried in solution 
beyond the international boundary both by the floods in Whitewater 
Draw and by the southward-moving ground waters. 

RELATION TO ZONES OF NATIVE VEGETATION. 

Although the character of the native vegetation may not every- 
where be an accurate index to the amount of alkali in the soil, yet it 
is in general a guide of great value whose indications should not be 
ignored. Saltbush and salt grass are danger signals, and alkali saca- 
ton (Sporobolus airoides) is likely to be an indication that considera- 
ble alkali is present. A healthy growth of mesquite or of grama and 
other upland grasses generally indicates that the soil is not overbur- 
dened with alkali, though the absence of mesquite does not, of course, 
necessarily imply the presence of alkali. Mesquite and grama were 
found growing in a number of localities where the analyses show the 
presence of dangerous amounts of alkali, but in these localities the 
plants are more or less scattered or stunted, or show other signs of 
distress. (See also pp. 182-187.) 



ALKALI. 167 

EFFECT OF IRRIGATION WATER. 
LEACHING ALKALI OUT OF SOIL. 

The best method of reclaiming alkali land consists in washing the 
alkali out of the soil and thereby removing the cause of the difficulty. 
This is most effectively done by covering the land with water in order 
that the water may percolate downward through the soil and carry 
the alkali with it. The conditions necessary to make the method 
successful are (1) a porous soil and subsoil, (2) a good underdrainage, 
and (3) an abundant supply of water. The alkali is much more 
easily removed from porous sandy soils through which the water sinks 
readily than from heavy clay soils into which it penetrates with diffi- 
culty. Caliche and the hardpan formed by black alkali also interfere 
with the leaching process. In the San Joaquin Valley, Cal., it was 
found necessary to break up the hardpan by blasting before the soil 
could be effectively leached. 1 Moreover, the ground water must have 
opportunity to drain away, for if it accumulates and raises the water 
table within reach of capillary action the alkali is not permanently 
removed but will be drawn back when the flooding stops. Land 
that does not have good natural underdrainage can in many places 
be reclaimed by first installing a drainage system of tiles or open 
ditches by means of which the seepage from the irrigation water is 
carried away. A drainage system can of course be successful only 
if it can be made to discharge at a place far enough below the level 
of the irrigated land to allow of effective drainage. 

A soil solution may contain several thousand parts per million of 
alkali without being injurious to crops. If the soil itself is free from 
alkali and is well drained, and if heavy applications of water are 
made, the soil solution will be not much more concentrated than the 
irrigation water itself; that is, the irrigation water in penetrating the 
soil finds but little alkali to dissolve and it leaves little of its original 
content of alkali when it passes out of the soil. Under such conditions 
water that is regarded as heavily mineralized can be successfully used. 
In certain oases in Sahara Desert vegetables considered sensitive to 
alkali are successfully grown, although irrigated with water contain- 
ing as much as 8,000 parts per million of soluble salts, including in 
some places as much as 4,000 parts per million of sodium chloride. 
This is possible because the conditions for drainage are ideal and the 
water is used unsparingly. 2 With good drainage and a large water 
supply highly mineralized waters can be used not only to irrigate soil 
that is free from alkali but also to reclaim alkali soils, because in 

1 Fortier, Samuel, and Cone, V. M., Drainage of irrigated lands in the San Joaquin Valley, California: 
Bull. Office Exp. Sta. No. 217, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1909, p. 25. 

2 Means, T. H., The use of alkaline and saline waters for irrigation: Circ. Bur. Soils No. 10, U. S. Dept. 
Agr., 1903. 



168 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

percolating through soils they retain their own load of dissolved 
matter, and in addition take up and carry away with them the alkali 
found in the soil. 

The ground water of Sulphur Spring Valley is practically all 
sufficiently pure to be used under the ideal conditions that have been 
described without danger of injurious results. But this method of 
irrigation will find little application in this valley. The low alkaline 
tracts are in general poorly drained. The higher ground has some- 
what more pervious soil and lies farther above the water table, but 
in many localities the caliche in the subsoil will to some extent 
hinder downward percolation. Moreover, the lavish use of water 
will be prohibited by the cost of pumping. On the higher ground, 
on the other hand, both soil and water, as a rule, contain so little 
alkali that vigorous leaching will not be necessary nor desirable. 

CONTRIBUTING ALKALI TO SOIL. 

Where it is not feasible to wash the alkali out of the soil the problem 
assumes a different aspect. Not only does the soluble matter already 
in the soil remain there, but the soluble matter introduced with the 
irrigation water is left in the soil when the water evaporates. Under 
such conditions relatively pure water may in the course of time supply 
a harmful quantity of alkali. 

As an acre-foot of water weighs approximately 2,700,000 pounds, 
one part per million of any dissolved substance is equivalent to about 
2.7 pounds per acre-foot. As 1 pound of chlorine is equivalent to 
1.65 pounds of common salt, 2.7 pounds of chlorine is equivalent to 
4.4 pounds of common salt. That is, an acre-foot of water will on 
evaporation deposit 4.4 pounds of common salt for every part per 
million of chlorine that it contains, provided that all the chlorine 
combines with sodium. Under the specified conditions an acre-foot 
of water will deposit about 110 pounds of common salt if it contains 
25 parts per million of chlorine, 440 pounds if it contains 100 parts 
per million, and 4,400 pounds if it contains 1,000 parts per million. 

An acre-foot of soil weighs approximately 4,000,000 pounds. If it 
is assumed that all of the mineral matter contained in the irrigation 
water is deposited within 3 feet of the surface, then the mineral matter 
deposited on each acre will be distributed through about 12,000,000 
pounds of soil. It follows that where the chlorine content is only 25 
parts per million a foot of irrigation water will contribute only 110 
pounds of salt to 12,000,000 pounds of soil, or an amount of salt that 
is a little less than 0.001 per cent of the soil. Under such conditions 
a depth of over 400 feet of water is required in order to add 0.4 per 
cent of common salt, which may be regarded as an injurious amount. 
With similar assumptions it can be shown that 0.4 per cent of common 



ALKALI. 169 

salt will be contributed to the soil by 110 feet of water containing 100 
parts per million of chlorine, by 37 feet of water containing 300 parts, 
by 11 feet of water containing 1,000 parts, and by less than 4 feet of 
water containing 3,000 parts. 

It is evident that water containing less than 100 parts per million 
of chlorine will deposit so little salt that practically no harmful 
results need be feared from it even where the drainage is poor. On 
the other hand, it is evident that water containing over 1,000 parts 
per million will in the course of a few years contribute a harmful 
amount of salt if a large proportion of the salt is deposited in the soil 
and not leached out. In the low areas, where drainage is poor and 
the soil already contains considerable alkali, water containing several 
hundred parts per million of chlorine may prove injurious. 

Figure 29 (p. 137) shows that the areas in which the chlorine content 
is greater than 100 parts per million are small and relatively unim- 
portant. Even within these areas much of the water is not danger 
ously high in chlorine, but the water represented by the most highly 
mineralized samples may prove injurious. Of course it must be re- 
membered that highly mineralized waters may be encountered in 
exceptional wells even in the areas shown on the map as having less 
than 100 parts of chlorine. 

One-tenth of 1 per cent of sodium carbonate in a soil is generally 
regarded as injurious to grain crops under average conditions. With 
the same assumptions as have been made in the computations for 
common salt, it may be shown that this percentage of sodium car- 
bonate will be contributed by 175 feet of water having 25 parts per 
million of black alkali, by 44 feet of water having 100 parts, by 15 feet 
of water having 300 parts, and by 4 J feet of water having 1,000 parts. 
Most of the black alkali in the water of this region is present as 
a bicarbonate, but in the soil some of the bicarbonate may be con- 
verted into the more injurious normal carbonate. The analyses show 
that most of the water in the valley does not contain dangerous 
amounts of black alkali, but that some supplies may under unfavor- 
able conditions add injurious quantities of this undesirable ingredient 
to the soil. Water having more than 100 parts per million may be 
regarded with suspicion, especially where the drainage is poor and the 
soil is already alkaline. 

Because of the wide distribution of black alkali in the soils of this 
region, a supply of water that has permanent hardness is especially 
desirable, since such water will tend to neutralize the sodium carbon- 
ate of the soil. Throughout most of the alkali tracts the ground 
water is of the black alkali type (see fig. 31, p. 141), but water with 
permanent hardness can be obtained in certain localities in which the 
soil contains black alkali, as for example, at Allaire's ranch, in a small 



170 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA, 

area southeast of Willcox, and in a small area southeast of Servoss. 
Black alkali can also be neutralized by the application of gypsum. 
(See p. 216.) 

Sodium sulphate is less injurious than sodium chloride and sodium 
carbonate, and, with a few exceptions, it is yielded in comparatively 
small amounts by the waters of this region. In general, therefore, its 
influence may be disregarded if account is taken of the sodium 
chloride and black alkali. 

CHANGING THE WATER LEVEL. 

Where the ground water stands at so high a level that it can be 
lifted by capillarity to the surface, the danger from alkali is peculiarly 
threatening, because the soil receives contributions of alkali both 
from the ground water that is pumped and applied in irrigation and 
from the ground water drawn up by capillarity. Temporary relief is 
often found by washing down the alkali, but the alkali can not in this 
way be permanently removed, for it is drawn back as soon as evapo- 
ration is resumed. The localities in Sulphur Spring Valley in which 
the water table is less than 10 feet below the surface are liable to 
suffer in this way, especially since they are already overburdened with 
soluble minerals. 

A great deal of damage has resulted in irrigated areas from the fact 
that the water applied to the land has raised the water table and has 
thereby brought the ground water within reach of the atmosphere. 
The conditions in Sulphur Spring Valley, however, are different 
from those in areas irrigated with surface water. The water will be 
pumped from below the land that is irrigated, and it seems probable 
that the water table will in general be lowered somewhat when 
extensive irrigation is undertaken, although it may be raised in cer- 
tain tracts. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The conclusions in regard to the alkali in the water and soil can be 
briefly summarized as follows: 

1. In most of the area in which the depth to water is less than 15 
feet and in small tracts where the depth to water is greater the soil 
contains injurious amounts of alkali. The area of alkali soil covers 
about 150 square miles, including the barren flat. 

2. In nearly all the area in which the depth to water is more 
than 15 feet the soil is free from injurious amounts of alkali, and 
the area of such soil, free from injurious amounts of alkali, in which 
the depth to water is less than 50 feet, covers about 250 square 
miles, or 160,000 acres. 

3. The most harmful constituent of the alkali in the soil is sodium 
carbonate. It is widely distributed over the alkali area and occurs 
in relatively large quantities, especially north of the barren flat. 



ALKALI. 171 

4. The ground water thus far developed is nearly all of good 
quality for use in irrigation. Even in the low tracts having alkali 
soil it is as a rule not highly mineralized. 

5. Undesirable amounts of alkali are found (1) in much of the 
highly mineralized water southeast of Willcox, where the harmful 
constituents are chiefly chlorides; (2) in the water of some of the 
very shallow wells and a few deeper wells in the low alkali tracts, 
the principal harmful constituent being black alkali; and (3) in the 
water of a few exceptional wells in other parts of the valley. 

6. In certain localities soils containing black alkali can be improved 
by the application of water having permanent hardness, although in 
general water of this type is not available where the alkali soil exists. 
The highly mineralized water east of Douglas is good irrigation 
water. The highly mineralized water southeast of Willcox will 
neutralize black alkali, but may deposit harmful amounts of white 
alkali. 

SOIL ANALYSES. 

The analyses set forth in the following table were made by Dr. 
W. H. Ross, of the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station. They 
give the amounts of alkali as a percentage of the total soil. 



172 WATER BESOUBCES OF SULPHUB SPBING VALLEY, AEIZONA. 



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174 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 



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182 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER AND OTHER 
GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS. 1 

By O. E. Meinzer. 

ZONES OF VEGETATION. 

With respect to its native vegetation, the drainage basin of Sulphur 
Spring Valley can be divided, from higher to lower levels, into (1) a 
forest zone, (2) an upland grass and brush zone, (3) a mesquite zone, 
(4) a sagebrush area, (5) a zone of alkali vegetation, and (6) a barren 
zone. The pronounced segregation of the dominant plant forms that 
gives rise to these zones is due to the radical differences, within this 
comparatively small region, in the physical conditions that control 
plant life. The most important of these controlling factors are soil, 
temperature, and water supply. 

FOREST ZONE. 

The forest zone includes the greater part of the mountain area, 
approximately 1,000 square miles, and also the upper parts of the 
valleys of some of the principal draws that descend the stream-built 
slopes. Over only small parts of the area is the forest dense or con- 
tinuous; more commonly the trees are scattered or grow in clumps 
in sheltered places, extensive mountain areas being quite treeless. 
On the lofty ranges tall yellow pines predominate; on the foothills 
and lower ranges junipers, live oaks, and cedars are common; and 
in the ribbons of timber that stretch along the stream courses live 
oaks, sycamores, and cottonwoods prevail. The principal controlling 
factor in this area is its relatively abundant water supply. 

UPLAND GRASS AND BRUSH ZONE. 

The upland grass and brush zone occupies the higher parts of the 
valley adjacent to the mountains; it is bounded on its lower side 
by the mesquite zone, or, where the mesquite is absent, by the zone 
of alkali vegetation. It extends over approximately three-fourths 
of the valley. Most of the area is covered with a light growth of 
different sorts of grasses, but in the central and southern parts of the 
valley it includes extensive tracts of creosote and other bushes. It 
also includes "groves" of thrifty yucca (PI. XIII, B). This rather 
heterogeneous zone contains much good soil but is characterized 
on the whole by a gravelly soil and an uncertain water supply. The 
greater part of it is as yet unpromising for agricultural development, 
especially because of the depth to ground water. 

1 The determinations of plants whose scientific names are given were made by J. J. Thornber, of the 
Arizona Experiment Station staff. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 3?0 PLATE 




A. MESQUITE BELT. 




B. YUCCA GROVE. 




C. SAGEBRUSH ON WIND-BUILT AREA. 



VEGETATION" IN RELATION" TO WATER. 183 

MESQUITE ZONE. 

The mesquite zone is occupied by mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) of 
moderate size, although small as compared with the large individuals 
of Prosopis velutina found farther west in the State. Bushes ranging 
from 5 to 10 feet in height are common, but those of 15 feet are rare. 
This zone lies on the middle and lower parts of the stream-built slopes 
(Pis. I, in pocket 1 ; XIII, J.). Its limits are as a rule well defined, 
although in some places, especially on the upper sides, they are in- 
definite. Exclusive of the tracts of scattered mesquite on the upper 
slopes, this zone covers about 250 square miles, or nearly one-sixth 
of the valley surface. It is wide on the broad gentle slopes that 
descend from the Pinaleno and Chiricahua mountains but more 
narrow on the abrupt slopes bordering the smaller ranges, and in 
some localities it wedges out entirely. Its inner limits seem, with 
some exceptions, to be established by the soil of the low tracts, both 
the alkali content and heavy clayey character of the lowland soil 
probably being uncongenial to mesquite. The conditions that 
establish its outer limits and prevent the mesquite from spreading 
generally to the upper slopes are not so obvious. The outer margin 
of the zone bears a general, though indefinite, relation to the depth 
to ground water. 

As this zone holds an intermediate position, it includes a large 
proportion of the best soil of the valley and much of the area having 
moderate depth to ground water. Consequently it includes a large 
part of the area having the best agricultural prospects. Much labor 
is required to prepare the mesquite-covered land for cultivation, but 
this difficulty is not insurmountable and should not be given undue 
weight by prospective settlers. 

SAGEBRUSH AREA. 

Sagebrush (Artemisia filif olid), although not commonly found in 
this part of the country, predominates over an area of about 8 square 
miles, lying immediately east of Willcox (Pis. I, in pocket; XIII, 0), 
and is present over an additional area of several square miles in the 
same general locality. It has a definite relation to the sandy soil of 
the wind-built area. A part of the sagebrush land has a sandy-loam 
soil of fairly good quality and is sufficiently level to be brought under 
irrigation, but a part is too sandy and hilly to be successfully irri- 
gated or cultivated. 

ZONE OF ALKALI VEGETATION. 

Low tracts partly inclosed by the mesquite-covered areas support 
a vegetation entirely different from that found in any other part of 

1 Note error on legend of map, Plate I. 



184 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

the valley. The prevailing forms in these tracts are the saltbushes, 
Atriplex sp., commonly known as "chamiso," "shadscale," or "sage- 
brush"; the burro weed, Suseda, commonly found at the margin of 
the barren flat; the alkaline sacaton (Sporobolus airoides); and the 
Mexican salt grass (Eragrostis obtusiflora). All of these plants are 
alkali-resistant and for this reason occupy the soil which their more 
sensitive upland neighbors can not endure. The plants mentioned 
are to some extent segregated into subzones, the salt grass and Suseda 
generally occupying more alkaline land than the sacaton and chamiso. 
The Suseda maintains itself in clumps at the margin of the barren 
flat where the surface is otherwise destitute of vegetation (PI. 
V, B, p. 33). 

The tracts of alkali vegetation cover a total area of somewhat 
more than 100 square miles, the greater part of which lies in the north 
basin surrounding the barren flat. In this zone, especially in those 
parts in which salt grass and Suseda predominate, crops are liable to 
suffer from excessive alkali, and agricultural developments should 
therefore be made with caution. 

BARREN ZONE. 

The lowest part of the flat in the north basin comprises, as already 
stated, an area of slightly more than 50 square miles that is entirely 
destitute of vegetation (Pis. I, in pocket; V, C, p. 33). The analyses 
of all the samples taken from this flat show very high percentages 
of alkali, which condition no doubt accounts for the absence of even 
tho plants that can endure relatively large amounts. The barren 
flat is of course entirely hopeless for agriculture. 

GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS. 

As already indicated, the principal physical conditions that con- 
trol the plant life of the region and create the well-defined zones of 
vegetation relate to the soil, temperature, and water supply. 

SOIL. 

The soils range between extreme limits, both in physical con- 
stitution and in soluble content. The valley contains very coarse 
gravelly soil, exceedingly dense clay soil, and all intermediate vari- 
eties. It contains soil from which practically all of the soluble min- 
eral matter, even the calcium carbonate, has been removed, soil rich 
in lime and gypsum but free from alkali ; and soil charged with more 
than 10 per cent of alkali. These radical differences are reflected 
in the vegetation. The sagebrush dominates over its competitors 
in the sandy soil of the wind-built area, but can not gain a foothold 
elsewhere. The creosote bush prefers the calcareous soil derived from 
limestone formations. The yucca and mesquite find a congenial 



VEGETATION IN RELATION TO WATER. 185 

habitat on the beach ridges but avoid the alkaline clay soil on either 
side. One type of grass flourishes on the heavy soil of an arroyo, 
another on the lighter soil of the natural levees that border the arroyo, 
and still another on the alkaline soil of the central flat. The salt- 
bushes can not establish themselves in the mesquite zone, but they 
take possession of large parts of the alkaline tracts. Even among the 
saltbushes there is segregation resulting from adaptation to differing 
soil conditions, for one type selects the lighter and less strongly im- 
pregnated soil, and the other subsists, often without competition, on 
the heavier and more alkaline clay. 

TEMPERATURE. 

The differences in temperature within the region result chiefly 
from the differences in altitude, and, therefore, their effects upon 
vegetation are most noticeable on the mountains, where there are 
large and abrupt differences in altitude. In ascending a lofty range, 
such as the Chiricahua Mountains, one can not fail to observe the 
changes in the dominant tree species with increasing altitude, but 
one can not always be sure to what extent the changes result from 
reduced temperatures and to what extent from increased precipita- 
tion. However, that the changes in temperature have some influ- 
ence is suggested by the fact that at the higher altitudes trees char- 
acteristic of regions farther north, such as deciduous oaks, are found. 
The mountains are not high enough to extend above the timber line, 
but near the top of the Chiricahua Range the trees are notably smaller 
and less prosperous than those of the same species at somewhat lower 
altitudes. 

As a rule the temperature decreases with increasing altitude, but 
an exception to this rule is formed by the lowest parts of the valley, 
where the temperatures at night are generally lower than on the 
upper parts of the slopes and in the foothills. The low temperatures 
on the valley flats, which result from the fact that the cold, heavy 
air sinks to the lowest levels, have an important and well-recognized 
effect on fruit growing, the danger from frost being greater on the 
flats than in the higher parts of the valley. 

WATER SUPPLY. 

The three principal sources of water supply for the native vegeta- 
tion are: (1) The moisture derived directly from rain or snow, (2) the 
freshets which occasionally flood the arroyos and spread in sheets 
over portions of the stream-built slopes, and (3) the ground water, 
wherever it is within reach of the roots of the native plants. The 
supply of water available for vegetation from any one of the three 
sources is very much greater in certain parts of the region than in 



186 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

others, and the influence of these differences on the character of the 
vegetation is so pronounced that it can not fail to be noticed. 

The scanty precipitation in the valley and foothills has given rise 
to plants adapted to withstanding drought. On the other hand, the 
abundant precipitation on the lofty mountains has produced very 
different conditions of plant life, resulting in a very different flora, 
large prosperous forests taking the place of the thorny shrubs and 
drought-resisting grasses of the desert. Within the tree-covered 
area, moreover, there are differences in vegetation due to differences 
in the amount of rainfall. The tall yellow-pine timber on the high 
mountains, for instance, indicates more rainfall than the scattered 
cedars on the mesas and foothills. 

The land lying in the upper parts of the large draws, such as Bonita 
Draw and the draw of Turkey Creek, is frequently watered by floods 
emanating from the mountains ; land lying in the smaller draws or in 
other favorable locations is occasionally, though more rarely, covered 
with flood water; and other extensive portions of the stream-built 
slopes are at present never refreshed with flood waters. The most 
favored draws produce a relatively luxuriant vegetation, some of 
them, such as Turkey Creek Draw and Whitewater Draw, being tim- 
bered with live oaks, sycamores, cottonwoods, and other trees for 
miles along their upper courses; the less frequently flooded areas are 
treeless, but produce a good crop of grass in seasons when they have 
been moistened by freshets; but the tracts not reached by floods 
produce ~only a sparse growth of grass or desert brush. In the fall 
it is not difficult to recognize the areas that were favored during the 
previous rainy season with one or more floods. The flooded belts 
commonly have grass large enough to be cut for hay, but the areas 
that have received no moisture except that supplied by the local 
rainfall have generally only a light covering of grass. The good grass 
that has made Sulphur Spring Valley as a whole such a valuable 
cattle range is largely produced by the sheet floods which at inter- 
vals spread over the smooth, extensive, and but slightly dissected 
slopes comprising the greater part of the valley. 

Yucca will endure severe drought and accordingly is found on the 
poorly watered upper slopes. Yet even this plant has generally only 
a scattering growth on the areas that are not flooded, but is found in 
luxuriant "groves" in the tracts where the rainfall is occasionally 
supplemented by freshets. 

Where the water table is near the surface the roots of plants extend 
down to it. The grasses and saltbushes of the low alkali tracts no 
doubt feed on ground water, which in these tracts saturates the soil 
nearly to the surface. Mesquite, which has deep roots and grows 
chiefly where the depth to water is not great, also no doubt depends 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 320 PLATE XIV 




A. HOOKER'S RANCH. 
Showing trees supported by high-level ground water. 




B. PUMPING PLANT NO. 20. 



PUMPING PLANTS. 187 

in part on ground water, and its occurrence is to some extent restricted 
to the areas in which its roots can penetrate to this supply. 

An intimate relation exists between the forested portions of the 
draws and the areas of high-level ground waters, suggesting that the 
trees may be supported by these relatively permanent supplies rather 
than by those obtained directly from the uncertain floods. (See 
PI. XIV, A.) Along Turkey Creek, for example, the lower limit 
of trees corresponds pretty closely to the lower limit of high- 
level water. This relation has been observed in enough places to 
warrant prospecting for shallow water in the forested draws in which 
wells have not yet been sunk. 

SUMMARY. 

The geography of Sulphur Spring Valley is the resultant of a chain 
of natural events that are causally related to each other. The cycle 
was started by the deformation through which the mountains were 
lifted and the valley was depressed. The difference in altitude thus 
produced resulted in differences in temperature and corresponding 
differences in rainfall. Gravitation then cooperated with the rain 
and other agencies to dissect the mountains and to develop the smooth 
face of the valley with its large areas subjected to flooding, to segre- 
gate the soils of the valley into zones ranging from the densest clay 
to the lightest sand and gravel, to establish a water table that is prac- 
tically at the surface in some places and hundreds of feet below in 
others, and to leach the soluble salts from a part of the land and 
concentrate them elsewhere. The differences in temperature, rain- 
fall, flooding, physical constitution of the soil, depth to ground 
water, and concentration of the soluble salts are all consequent to 
the normal development of the geologic cycle begun by the deforma- 
tion. They are all reflected in the native vegetation of the region, 
and they are controlling factors that can not safely be ignored in the 
agricultural conquest of the valley. 

PUMPING PLANTS. 

By F. C. Kelton. 
DISTRIBUTION. 

Scattered about Sulphur Spring Valley are about a hundred 
pumping plants (PL II, in pocket), ranging in capacity from 20 to 
1,500 gallons a minute. This number does not include the numer- 
ous windmills which pump water for domestic uses, stock watering, 
and garden irrigation. 

The pumping district is not confined to any particular portion of 
the valley, except as it is naturally limited by physical features, such 
as the concentration of alkali, which precludes the successful use of 
irrigating water in the lower parts, and the greater depths to water 



188 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

on the receding slopes. However, the region adjacent to the town 
of Willcox, especially the part lying to the northwest, is the most 
advanced in respect to pumping developments, chiefly because 
water is obtainable more easily there than elsewhere. As a rule each 
settler has been able to obtain a considerable supply by his own 
efforts and the use of hand tools only. 

WELLS. 

The common type of well consists of an open pit dug within a foot 
of water level and a bored hole extending down into the water- 
bearing strata. The boring is usually done by means of a post-hole 
auger operated by hand. The pump is set in the dug pit and con- 
nected through an inclined beltway to the engine at the surface. So 
far as observed the water level does not fluctuate appreciably through- 
out any one year, and the plant can therefore operate under uniform 
load. The pit is generally rectangular in section and may vary in 
size from 3 by 4 feet to 5 by 7 feet; the auger holes will average 8 
or 9 inches in diameter, though some are as small as 6 inches and 
others as large as 14 inches. As the holes are generally left without 
casing, it is the opinion of the writer that they should be at least 
10 inches in diameter for plants having a capacity of 450 gallons a 
minute (the usual rating for 4-inch centrifugal pumps) and 14 inches 
in diameter for plants having a capacity of 750 gallons a minute (5- 
inch centrifugals). 

For wells of moderate depth sunk by contract the following prices 
prevail : 

Cost of wells per foot of depth. 

4 by 4 foot $1. 00 

4 by 5 foot 1.25 

4 by 6 foot 1.50 

6-inch diameter 75 

8 or 10 inch diameter 1. 00 

Beltway (per cubic yard) 1. 70 

PUMPS AND ENGINES. 

The common type of pumping plant consists of a gasoline engine 
belted to a horizontal centrifugal pump. The engines vary in size 
from 4 to 30 horsepower and the pumps from 2 to 8 inch diameter 
of opening. A typical plant has a 10-horsepower gasoline engine 
and a 4-inch horizontal centrifugal pump, with a lift of 35 feet. 

SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION. 

Duration. — Of the 20 representative plants selected for pumping 
tests, 8 had been recently installed. The remaining 12 had been 
installed in the previous irrigating season, but 8 of them had been 
delayed and had not been operated to any great extent. For this 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 320 PLATE XV 




A. PORTABLE WEIR BOX READY FOR TRANSPORTATION. 




B. PORTABLE WEIR BOX IN USE. 



PUMPING PLANTS. 189 

reason reliable figures on cost of maintenance, repairs, attendance, 
and operation could not be obtained, and the investigation was 
necessarily limited to ascertaining the initial cost of plants, consump- 
tion and cost of fuel, yield of wells, and general efficiency. Long- 
time tests extending through a period of several days were not prac- 
ticable. The tests covered three to nine hours. 

Measurement of fuel. — Wherever possible, the consumption of 
gasoline, which at all plants was a No. 1 distillate, was measured in 
volume. Either the fuel tank was drained and a measured quantity 
of distillate put in and the time required to consume it noted, or the 
tank was filled at the start to some convenient and accurate measur- 
ing point and at the completion of the test the amount required to 
refill it to the same point was ascertained. 

Measurement of lift. — At most plants the distance through which 
the water was lifted was measured with a steel tape. At a few 
falling water made the use of the tape impossible and a J-inch 
rubber tube was employed, the depth at which it entered the water 
being ascertained by blowing gently through the tube as it was 
being slowly lowered into the well. When the tube entered the 
water the vibration due to bubbling was very apparent. 

Measurement of yield. — It was desired to measure the amount of 
water pumped as accurately as possible and the Cippoletti weir 
method was selected for this purpose. A temporary weir board set 
in the ditch was impracticable at many plants — for instance, at 
those where the soil is very sandy and porous, or where the well 
discharges directly into an earthen reservoir, or where the fall in the 
ditch is very slight. As most of the plants are equipped with cen- 
trifugal pumps ranging in size from No. 2 up to No. 5, and as the 
capacity of such pumps may be assumed to range from 100 to 
900 gallons a minute, a portable weir box (PL XV), measuring 4 feet 
by 10 feet by 18 inches was constructed of No. 6 waterproofed duck 
and was found to measure with fair accuracy any quantity within 
these limits. 

The qualities considered necessary in this box were water-tight- 
ness ; flexibility, so that the box could be easily folded for transporta- 
tion; durability, the material being such as to permit of frequent 
foldings without developing cracks or leaks; and simplicity and 
lightness, so far as consistent with the other requirements. 

One end of the box was closed by a weir board of the standard 
Cippoletti type, having a crest of 15 inches, the water edge being per- 
fected and protected by means of a plate of No. 16 galvanized iron 
cut to proper shape and screwed to the board. Flaps nailed to the 
weir board with cleats pervented leakage. The box was stiffened 
at the sides by galvanized-iron pipes thrust through loops and sup- 
ported by strips of wood, and at the end opposite the weir board 



190 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

by a 1 by 4 inch board tacked to the canvas along the upper edge. 
The four corners of the box were supported by iron rods, which were 
passed through loops and driven into the ground. 

For use, the box was adjusted beneath the discharge pipe of the 
pump, a foundation of boards being laid, where necessary, to insure 
a level position. A few boards were placed immediately under 
the discharge pipe of the pumping plant to receive and distribute 
the force of the falling water. An apron of scrap *tin was used to 
prevent the falling water from causing scour. One baffle board was 
placed about 2 feet from the weir-board end of the box and another 
3 feet from the opposite end, and the 5-foot space between the two 
was filled with green brush, weighted down, which permitted the 
water to percolate freely but quieted the wave motion and eddying, 
thus permitting accurate measurement of the head on the weir. 

DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS AND RESULTS OF TESTS. 

Plant No. 1— Plant No. 1, located in the N. \ sec. 29, T. 23 S., 
R. 27 E., and owned by Mr. George Giragi, was tested on May 14, 1911. 
The outfit includes a Fairbanks, Morse & Co. 4-horsepower vertical 
gasoline engine, with 22-inch drive pulley; an American No. 2\ 
horizontal centrifugal pump, with 8-inch pulley lagged to 8} inches; 
a 4-inch 4-ply rubber belt, with half turn, inclined 75° from the 
horizontal; a 3-inch suction pipe 17 feet long, with foot valve; and 
a 3-inch discharge pipe connected with a pipe line containing 36 
feet of 4-inch and 830 feet of 3-inch pipe. 

The well is dug to a depth of 49 feet, 4 \ by A\ feet, and is tim- 
bered with 2-inch rough lumber, with sets at 5-foot intervals. The 
normal water level stands at 31 feet. During the excavating the 
well was kept clear by a plunger pump, with a 4-inch piston and a 
24-inch stroke, working 37 strokes per minute. No water-bearing 
sand or gravel was encountered, and no difficulty was experienced in 
keeping the water lowered until at 49 feet depth a 2-inch stratum 
of hard cemented material was pierced with an iron bar. When 
this cement was broken the bar is said to have sunk 3 or 4 feet into 
loose sand or gravel, and a strong flow of water gushed into the well. 

Test of plant of George Giragi, N. \ sec. 29, T. 23 S., R. 27 E. {plant No. 1). 

Duration hours. . 3. 67 

W&ter pumped acre-inches. . 0. 56 

Maximum discharge measured gallons a minute. . 115 

Average discharge do 69 

Water level drawn down feet. . 7. 

Average lift, static do. . . 40. 

Useful horsepower 0. 70 

Fuel used during test gallons. . 1. 47 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do 0. 58 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do — 31. 3 



PUMPING PLANTS. 191 

Speed of engine revolutions a minute . . 395 

Explosions per minute 108 to 120 

Speed of pump revolutions a minute. . 917 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine, when 

pumping through pipe line (practical efficiency) per cent. . 14. 8 

Same, when discharging near well do 30 

Cost: 

Engine $350 

Pump, pipe, and belt (second hand) 65 

Plant No. &— Plant No. 2, in the SW. i sec. 24, T. 15 S., R. 25 E., 
is owned by Fred. Arzberger. It was installed in November, 1909, 
and was tested May 19, 1911. The plant is equipped with a Stover 
6-horsepower horizontal gasoline engine; a Gould No. 2 horizontal 
centrifugal pump; a 6-inch 4-ply Gandy belt inclined 72° from 
horizontal, with a half turn; 18-inch and 6-inch pulleys; a 20-foot 
suction of 3-inch standard pipe, with foot valve; a discharge pipe of 
the same material, with 35 feet vertical, a standard elbow, and 3 
feet horizontal. The engine and well are both in the cellar of the 
dwelling house. 

The well was dug 33 feet to water level, after which an 8-inch 
auger hole was bored. The water is supplied from a 3-foot stratum 
of coarse rounded sand and gravel at a depth of about 51 feet. Clay 
was the only other material encountered below water level. 

A pasteboard gasket in a flange connection of the suction pipe 
permitted some air leakage, thereby lessening the efficiency of the 
plant; and the pump did not have the speed required for the head 
against which it was working. 

Test of plant of Fred. Arzberger, SW. I sec. 24, T. 15 S., R. 25 E. (plant No. 2). 

Duration hours. . 4. 43 

Water pumped acre-inches. . 0. 71 

Maximum discharge measured gallons a minute. . 84 

Average discharge do 72 

Water level drawn down feet. . 10. 1 

Discharge lift do. . . 35. 7 

Average suction lift do. . . 9. 2 

Average total lift do. . . 44. 9 

Useful horsepower 81 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (practical 

efficiency) per cent. . 13. 5 

Speed of engine revolutions a minute . . 275 to 278 

Speed of pump do 760 to 776 

Cost of plant, not including well $335 

Plant No. 3.— Plant No. 3, in the SE. | sec. 21, T. 15 S., R. 25 E., 
belongs to V. H. Fross. It was tested May 20, 1911. It was in- 
stalled in May, 1910, but the well was not completed until the spring 
of 1911. The pump, a Gould No. 2£ horizontal centrifugal, is belted 



192 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

to a Root & Vandervoort 4-horsepower vertical gasoline engine. 
The belt is of 4-inch 4-ply rubber, inclined 45°. The 4-inch suction 
pipe is 21 feet long; the discharge pipe is of the same diameter, and 
delivers the water vertically into a wooden flume. There is a check 
valve at the lower end of the discharge pipe, the priming being done 
by means of a pitcher pump. 

The well pit was first dug to a depth of 12 feet, the water level 
standing at 13 feet. A 7-inch hole was then bored 55 feet deep, 
showing the following log: 

Log of well of V. H. Fross, SE. \ sec. 21, T. 15 S., R. 25 E. 



Material 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Adobe soil 

Clay with streaks of caliche 

Clean uniform sharp sand of medium size 

Clay 

Fine sand, packed. No casing required 

Alternating layers of clay and caliche, with clay predominating. 

Rounded sand and gravel with some clay. Caves 

Clay 



Feet. 


Feet. 


2h 


2h 


Xk 


11 


1 


12 


1 


13 


2 


15 


15 


30 


2 


32 


23 


55 



The stratum from 30 to 32 feet is the only one containing any 
appreciable amount of water. To tap this stratum, five additional 
holes were bored at intervals of about 10 feet and connected with 
the first well by a drift whose bottom is 5 feet below normal water 
level. As the water rises and flows through the drift to the pump- 
ing pit, an effective 5-foot drawdown is maintained in each of tho 
auxiliary wells. On account of a slipping belt and an underspeeded 
pump, the plant did not yield nearly its full capacity. However, 
the water level in the main well was drawn down 9.3 feet, or to 4.3 
feet below the bottom of the tunnel, and the auxiliary wells there- 
fore gave their maximum yield, and any greater efficiency of the 
plant would have to depend for additional water on the main well 
only. The pump is rated at 185 gallons a minute. At the end of 
the test run, with a drawdown of 9.3 feet, the discharge was only 60 
gallons a minute, showing conclusively that the water supply ob- 
tainable from the present development is entirely inadequate for the 
capacity of the pump. The wells undoubtedly interfere with each 
other; and even at its best the 2-foot water-bearing stratum tapped 
could be but a poor yielder. Probably the best solution of the water- 
supply problem in this vicinity is to sink deeper. A machine-drilled 
well, with a casing with suitable perforations, would be preferable 
to the post-auger holes now in use. 



PUMPING PLANTS. 193 

Test of plant of V. H. Fross, SE. { sec. 21, T. 15 8., R. 25 E. {plant No. 3). 

Duration hours. . 3. 92 

Water pumped acre-inches.. 0. 63 

Average discharge gallons a minute . . 73 

Water level drawn down feet. . 9. 3 

Average lift do . . . 18. 6 

Plant No. J+.— Plant No. 4, in the NE. J sec. 22, T. 15 S., R. 25 E., 
is owned by R. F. McHenry. The plant was installed in March, 
1911, and the test was made May 21, 1911. A 6-horsepower hori- 
zontal gasoline Economy engine operates a No. 2 Gould hori- 
zontal centrifugal pump. The belt is 6-inch 4-ply stitched canvas, 
inclined about 55° from the horizontal. The pulleys are of 16-inch 
and 8-inch diameters, the latter being lagged with one thickness of 
belting, which increases its diameter to 8£ inches. The pump is 
primed by means of a hand primer on the suction. The piping is 
3-inch spiral riveted. The length of suction is 20 feet. The discharge 
pipe is bolted 4 feet above the ground to a flume with a 2-inch plank 
bottom and galvanized-iron sides. 

The well is dug 22 J feet, with dimensions 3 by 5 feet. Only the 
upper 4 feet are curbed. The 8-inch bored hole, 24 feet deep, is with- 
out casing. At 42 feet a 3-foot stratum of sand and fine gravel was 
penetrated. 

The breaking of a bolt on the governor rod brought the test to an 
abrupt close sooner than was intended. 

Test of plant of R. F. McHenry, NE. ± sec. 22, T.15 S.,R. 25 E. (plant No. 4). 

Duration hours. . 3. 33 

Water pumped acre-inches. . 0. 69 

Average discharge gallons a minute . . 104 

Water level drawn down feet. . 8. 5 

Average lift do. . . 34. 3 

Useful horsepower 0. 89 

Fuel used during test gallons. . 1. 5 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do 0. 56 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do 26. 1 

Speed of engine revolutions a minute . . 323 to 335 

Speed of pump do 655 to 670 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (prac- 
tical efficiency) per cent. . 14. 8 

Cost: 

Engine $145. 00 

Pump 82. 00 

Belt 13.50 

Curbing, flume, etc 5. 00 

245. 50 
82209°— wsp 320—13 13 



194 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Plant No. 5.— Plant No. 5, in the SE. J sec. 3, T. 16 &., R. 24 E., 
is owned by Walter Whitener. The pump was installed in January, 
1911, and the test was made June 9, 1911. A Stover portable 
10-horsepower gasoline engine is owned jointly with a neighbor and 
is moved back and forth to be used in turn. The pump is a No. 4 
American vertical centrifugal. The suction pipe is of 6-inch stand- 
ard casing, and the discharge pipe 4-inch casing, with a short-turn 
elbow and 10 feet horizontal. There is a 6-inch Gandy belt drive on 
20-inch and 8-inch pulleys. The pump is not submerged, but is set 
just above the normal water level at 23 feet. 

The well is dug, about 5 feet square, to 23 feet, the upper 17 feet 
being curbed with 1 by 12 inch boards. An 8-inch bored hole ex- 
tends to 54 feet, with the lower 20 feet cased with galvanized iron. 
The casing is freely perforated with hatchet-made slits about 1£ 
inches long, with the burrs on the outside. 

Log of well of Walter Whitener, SE. I sec. 3, T. 16 S., R. 24, E. 



Material. 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Sandy loam 

Free coarse sand and gravel 

Alternating layers of clay, hardpan, and fine packed sand. 

Loose fine sand 

Clay 

Hardpan 

Brownish, clean, coarse sand and gravel 



Feet. 



21 

3.5 
12 

0.5 

4 



Feet. 
4 
13 
34 
37.5 
49.5 
50 
54 



Test of plant of Walter Whitener, SE. \ sec. 3, T. 16 S., R. 24 E. {plant No. 5). 

Duration . hours. . 2. 83 

Water pumped acre-inch. . 0. 72 

Maximum discharge measured gallons a minute . . 127 

Average discharge do 114 

Water level drawn down feet. . 8. 3 

Average lift do. . . 33. 6 

Useful horsepower 0. 97 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (practical 

efficiency) per cent. . 9. 7 



Cost: 

Engine (one-half interest) $235 

Pump, shafting, pipe, and belt 176 

Lumber in well 10 

Plant No. 6.— Plant No. 6, in the SW. J sec. 20, T. 13 3., R. 24 E., 
belongs to L. W. Vertrees. It was installed in May, 1910, and 
tested May 16, 1911. The engine is a Foos Junior 4-horsepower 
horizontal gasoline. The pump is a Gould No. 2\ horizontal centrif- 
ugal driven by a 4-inch, 4-ply rubber belt working on 10-inch and 
5-inch pulleys at about 60°. The 3-inch suction pipe is of galvanized- 



PUMPrNG PLANTS. 195 

iron, spiral riveted, 10 feet long, and has a foot valve. The discharge 
pipe is of the same size and material, with 20 feet of horizontal 4-inch 
pipe, which discharges 3 feet above the ground. 

The dug portion of the well is 4 by 6 by 25 feet, uncurbed. The 
first 14 feet of bored hole is 12 inches in diameter, with a galvanized- 
iron casing perforated with slits that are very narrow — too narrow to 
permit the free entrance of water. The lower 11 feet of the well is 
10 inches in diameter, with no casing. The total depth is 50 feet, 
with water at 26 feet. The log was estimated as follows: 

Log of well of L. W. Vertrees, SW. ± sec. 20, T. 13 S., R. 24 E. 



Material. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 




Feet. 

28 

13 
9 


Feet. 
28 


"Second water. 


" Alternating layers in equal amount of medium-sized gravel and fine 


41 


Clay 


50 


"Third water," 


in gravel. 





Test of plant of L. W. Vertrees, SW. \ sec. 20, T. 13 S., R. 24 E. {plant No. 6). 

Duration hours. . 6. 23 

Water pumped acre-inches. . 1. 97 

Maximum discharge gallons a minute. . 156 

Average discharge do 142 

Water level drawn down feet. . 7. 4 

Discharge lift do. . . 26. 

Average suction lift do. . . 6. 5 

Average total lift do . . . 32. 5 

Useful horsepower 1. 17 

Fuel used during test gallons. . 3. 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do 0. 41 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do 18. 3 

Speed of engine revolutions per minute. . 336 to 343 

Speed of pump . . .do 625 to 626 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (practical 

efficiency) per cent. . 29. 2 

Plant No. 7.— Plant No. 7, in the SW. \ sec. 12, T. 12 S., R. 23 E., 
is the property of A. I. McAllister. It was installed in July, 1910, and 
was tested May 14, 1911. A Witte 12-horsepower horizontal gasoline 
engine is belted to an American No. 3£ vertical centrifugal pump. 
The belt is a 6-inch 4-ply Gandy. The engine and pump pulleys are 
30 and 7 inches in diameter, respectively. The 5-inch suction pipe 
is 12 feet long. The 5-inch discharge pipe is bolted to the bottom of 
a galvanized iron barrel 5 feet above the ground. 

The well pit is 3^ by 4J feet by 62 feet, curbed all the way with 
1 by 12 inch pine. A bored hole 8 inches in diameter extends 13 feet 
deeper, cased with galvanized iron; the lower 5 feet is perforated. 



196 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

The engine was greatly overloaded and its speed was irregular and 
spasmodic. At frequent intervals the pump ceased to deliver water 
and required repriming. The engine is too small for the work. The 
lift at the start is 66.4 feet, and a drawdown of 10 feet should be 
allowed for. If the capacity of the pump is 370 gallons a minute as 
rated, and if an efficiency of 40 per cent is allowed for the entire 
plant, an 18-horsepower engine should be used. 

It was impossible to measure the lowering of the water level, 
because the pump fitted closely over the casing of the well. The 
portable weir box proved particularly valuable in measuring the 
discharge, for the soil was loose and sandy and the fall in the ditch 
very slight. 

Test of plant of A. I. McAllister, SW. \ sec. 12, T. 12 8., R. 23 E. (plant No. 7). 

Duration hours. . 3. 88 

Water pumped acre-inches.. 1. 25 

Maximum discharge measured gallons a minute . . 195 

Average discharge do 145 

Discharge lift feet. . 66 

Average total lift (estimated) do. . . 73. 00 

Useful horsepower (approximate) 2. 65 

Fuel used during test gallons. . 9. 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do 0. 87 

Fuel used per acre-f^ot of water pumped do 86. 4 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (prac- 
tical efficiency) per cent.. 22. 1 

Plant No. 8.— Plant No. 8, in the NE. \ sec. 10, T. 14 S., R. 25 E., 
is owned by Stanley W. Craig. The installation was made in January, 
1911, and the plant was tested June 8, 1911. 

A Root & Vandervoort 6-horsepower horizontal gasoline engine is 
belted to a Byron Jackson No. 2 \ horizontal centrifugal pump. 
The engine has a wooden pulley 24 inches by 6 inches, and the pump 
a 5-inch iron pulley. The belt is 5-inch 4-ply rubber inclined about 
60°. The suction pipe is 28 feet long, of 3J-inch outside diameter 
casing, with check valve just below the pump. The discharge pipe 
is 27 feet 8 inches long, of 4-inch outside diameter casing, discharging 
vertically into a galvanized-iron tub and flume. 

The first 12 feet of the well are of 6 by 7 feet dimension, the upper 
6 feet being curbed with 1 by 12 inch redwood laid vertically. The 
next 16 feet are 4 feet square, without curbing. The water stands 
at 28 feet. A 9-inch hole extends to 65 feet, having 33 feet of 8J-inch 
galvanized-iron casing without perforations, in 30-inch lengths, with 
the joints lapped If inches and riveted. 



PUMPING PLANTS. 

Log of well ofS. W. Craig, NE. \ sec. 10, T. 14 S., R. 25 E. 



197 



Material. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Sandy soil 

Lime formation, uniform and consistent 

Fine sand and silt, packed (water level at 28 feet) 

Fine sand and silt similar to above stratum, but more sandy and less earthy. Runs 

freely, requiring casing 

Hard clay. Last 6 inches took two men half a day to bore 

Fine sand, packed, but otherwise same as above 9-foot stratum 

Clay with several 3-inch to 12-inch layers of fine free sand and a few streaks of caliche; the 

latter had to be broken with a bar 

Free, coarse, clean sand 

Hard clay. 



Feet. 

f 

16£ 



Feet. 

Hi 

28 

37 
40 

48 

62 
65 



Test of plant ofS. W. Craig, NE. } sec. 10, T. 14 8., R. 25 E. {plant No. 8). 

Duration hours. . 7. 05 

Water pumped acre-inches . . 2. 36 

Maximum discharge measured gallons a minute . . 202 

Average discharge do 151 

Water level drawn down feet. . 1$. 4 

Discharge lift do... 28.5 

Average suction lift do . . . 15. 9 

Average total lift do. . . 44. 4 

Useful horsepower 1. 69 

Fuel used during test gallons . . 5. 2 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do ... . 0. 44 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do ... . 26. 4 

Speed of engine revolutions a minute 304 to 310 

Speed of pump do 1,390 to 1,400 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (practical 

efficiency) per cent . . 28. 2 

Cost: 

Plant, not including well $395 

Lumber for engine house and well curbing 25 

Plant No. 9.— Plant No. 9, in the NW. i sec. 28, T. 22 S., R. 26 E., 
is the property of J. E. Brophy, of Bisbee. The test was made May 
26, 1911, about three months after the plant was installed. 

The engine is a 3-horsepower vertical gasoline from the Union Gas 
& Electric Engine Co., of Los Angeles. It is in a pit 7 feet below 
ground level. The pump is a Byron Jackson 2|-inch horizontal cen- 
trifugal. A 4-inch rubber belt is used, set at 45°. The pulleys are 
of 15-inch and 6-inch diameters. The log of the well was given as 
follows : 

Log of well of J. E. Brophy, NW. \ sec. 28, T. 22 S., R. 26 E. 



Material. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Soil 

Clay 

Quicksand , 

Coarse rounded sand and gravel 
Clay 



Feet. 

1 

14 

12 

94 

383 



Feet. 

1 

15 

27 

121 

504 



198 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

The water level is at 19 feet. The dug hole extends to the gravel 
bed at 27 feet, and from it a 6-inch drilled hole, cased with imperfo- 
rated black pipe, extends to a total depth of 504 feet. At first 8-inch 
pipe was used, with J-inch holes for perforations. After two lengths 
of pipe had been sunk the upper end of the casing became battered 
from driving and the hole was reduced to 6 inches. In addition to 
the deep hole, another is drilled to a depth of 24 feet below water 
level and cased with 6-inch sand-screen casing. 

Test of plant of J. E. Brophy, NW. \ sec. 28, T. 22 S., R. 26 E. {plant No. 9). 

Duration hours . . 6. 00 

Water pumped acre-inches . . 2. 10 

Average discharge gallons a minute . . 157 

Water level drawn down feet . . 7. 3 

Average lift do. . . 27. 7 

Useful horsepower 1. 10 

Fuel used during test gallons . . 3.0 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do ... . 0. 45 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do ... . 17. 2 

Speed of engine revolutions a minute . . 408 to 426 

Explosions a minute 204 to 213 

Speed of pump revolutions a minute . . 1, 031 to 1, 080 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (prac- 
tical efficiency) per cent . . 36. 7 

Plant No. 10.— Plant No. 10, in the SW. 1 sec. 3, T. 24 S., R. 27 E., 
about 2 J miles northwest of Douglas, is owned by George Turvey, 
who uses it to irrigate 10 acres of vegetable garden for the city mar- 
ket. It was tested May 25, 191 1 . 

The plant consists of a Weber 6-horsepower horizontal gasoline 
engine with 24-inch pulley; a Byron Jackson No. 3 J horizontal centrif- 
ugal pump, with 7J-inch pulley; a 6-inch rubber belt, with half turn, 
inclined 77° with the horizontal; 5-inch suction and discharge pipes; 
and a foot valve. 

The pump is set in a pit 20 feet deep. A machine-drilled hole ex- 
tends to 306 feet and is lined with 8-inch casing without perforations 
to a depth of 240 feet. The log of the well was not obtainable. A 
small stratum of water-bearing material was encountered at 93 feet. 
This stratum was tested, at the time of drilling, with a 2|-inch cen- 
trifugal pump, and its supply was quickly exhausted. The present 
supply is obtained entirely from the 300-foot level. 

Test of plant of George Turvey, SW. £ sec. 3, T. 24 S., R. 21 E. (plant No. 10). 

Duration. . .* hours. . 7. 35 

Water pumped acre-inches . . 3. 36 

Maximum discharge measured gallons a minute. . 261 

Average discharge do 206 

Water level drawn down feet . . 3. 6 

Discharge lift do. . . 21. 9 

Average suction lift do. . . 16. 4 



PUMPING PLANTS. 199 

Average total lift feet. . 38. 3 

Useful horsepower 1. 99 

Fuel used during test gallons. . 5. 8 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do 0. 40 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do 20. 7 

Speed of engine revolutions per minute. . 316 to 375 

Speed of pump do 940 to 1, 130 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine 
(practical efficiency) per cent. . 33. 2 

Cost: 

Engine $275 

Pump 85 

Piping 25 

Belt 17 

Shed 30 

Drilling well x 618 

Casing 284 

1,334 

Plant No. 11.— Plant No. 11, in the NE. \ sec. 4, T. 17 S., R. 25 E., 
belonging to H. E. Wright, was tested May 21, 1911. It is equipped 
with a McVickers automatic 6-horsepower horizontal gasoline engine 
and a Gould No. 2 J horizontal centrifugal pump. The 4-inch suction 
pipe is 22 feet long. The 2§-inch discharge pipe is 10 feet vertical 
and 6 feet horizontal. 

The dimensions of the well are 7 by 7 by 17 feet, with an auger hole 
extending to a total depth of 75 feet from the surface. It was said 
that the first water was found at 10 to 15 feet in a coarse, loose sand, 
the second water from 23 to 26 feet in similar material with the addi- 
tion of some small gravel, and the third water from 47 to 50 feet in 
gravel ranging up to 3 inches in size and containing very little sand. 
The hole was originally cased with 8-inch galvanized-iron pipe with 
small punched holes for perforations. These perforations did not 
yield water readily and the casing was withdrawn, after which the 
hole filled nearly to the bottom of the suction pipe with caved material. 

The loose condition of the first water stratum necessitated its being 
curbed with 2 by 12 inch plank. A short length of galvanized-iron 
pipe extends through the second water-bearing stratum. 

The capacity of the well was overtaxed in 19 minutes while pump- 
ing at an average rate of 210 gallons a minute. It is probable that 
this apparent deficiency is due not to a lack of water supply but to 
inefficient methods of development. 

i The price charged for the drilling was divided as follows: 

First 100 feet $150 

Second 100 feet 200 

Third 100 feet 250 

Last 6 feet 18 

"~618 



200 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

Test of plant of H. E. Wright, NE. \ sec. 4, T. 17 S. t R. 25 E. ('plant No. 11). 

Duration hours. . 0. 32 

Water pumped acre-inches. . . 15 

Maximum discharge measured gallons a minute. . 237 

Average discharge do 210 

Water level drawn down feet. . 16. 6 

Average lift do . . . 18. 5 

Useful horsepower 98 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (practi- 
cal efficiency) per cent. . 16. 3 

Plant No. 12.— Plant No. 12, in the SE. \ sec. 21, T. 13 S., R. 24 E., 
is owned by J. W. Ditmars. It was installed in May, 1910, and the test 
was made June 6, 1911. The plant consists of a Gould No. 3 hori- 
zontal centrifugal pump; an International Harvester Co. engine rated 
at 6-horsepower; a 16-inch driving pulley, and a 7-inch driven pulley; 
an 8-inch 5-ply stitched canvas belt; a 4-inch suction pipe 16 feet 
long, of spiral riveted pipe, with combination hand primer and check 
valve; and a 4-inch galvanized-iron discharge pipe, delivering the 
water 3 J feet above the ground. 

The well is of the usual type. The pit is 4 by 6 by 22 feet, un- 
curbed. The 10-inch bored hole extends to 40 J feet, without casing. 
The log was given as follows : 

Log of well of J. W. Ditmars, SE. I sec. 21, T. 13 S., R. 24 E. 



Material. 



Sandy adobe soil 

Clay interspersed with chunks of hard, white caliche. 

Packed coarse sand (water) 

Clay 

Coarse " second water" gravel 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 

2 

17 

3 

18 
h 



Depth. 



Feet. 
2 
19 
22 
40 
40£ 



Test of plant of J. W. Ditmars, SE. I sec. 21, T. 13 S., R. 24 E. (plant No. 12). 

Duration hours. . 6. 00 

Water pumped acre-inches . . 2.97 

Average discharge gallons a minute. . 223 

Water level drawn down feet . . G. 4 

Discharge lift do . . . 24 

Average suction lift do . . . 8. 2 

Average total lift do. . . 32. 2 

Useful horsepower 1. 81 

Fuel used during test gallons. . 4. 7 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do 0. 43 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do 19. 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (practical 

efficiency) per cent.. 30.2 

Cost of plant (about) $510 



PUMPING PLAKTS. 201 

Plant No. 13.— Plant No. 13, in the SE. \ sec. 27, T. 13 S., R. 
25 E., belongs to A. E. Keeth, of Willcox. It was installed in January, 
1911, and was tested June 4, 1911. The outfit consists of a Stover 
portable 10-horsepower engine belted to an American No. 3 J hori- 
zontal centrifugal pump. A 6-inch 4-ply Gandy belt works on 
20-inch and 8-inch pulleys at 45°. Suction and discharge pipes 
are of 5-inch standard pipe. The discharge pipe is bolted to a flume 
made with a plank bottom and galvanized-iron sides. 

The well consists of a dug pit 4 by 6 by 23 feet and a 14-inch 
bored hole to a total depth of 50 feet. Neither pit nor bored hole 
required any casing. The first 18 feet consisted of alternating 
layers of soil and hard clay, below which were 28 feet of hard-packed 
fine sand, then 4 feet of coarser sand and a little fine gravel, packed. 
At 50 feet a hard rocklike substance was struck, upon which no 
impression could be made with auger or iron bar. 

Test of plant of A. E. Keeth, SE. \ sec. 27, T. 13 8., R. 25 E. {plant No. 13). 

Duration hours. . 3. 78 

Water pumped acre-inches. . 2. 16 

Maximum discharge measured gallons a minute . . 296 

Average discharge do 258 

Water level drawn down feet. . 12. 4 

Discharge lift do. . . 24 

Average suction lift do. . . 11. 7 

Average total lift do. . . 35. 7 

Useful horsepower 2. 33 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (practical 

efficiency) per cent. . 23. 3 

Cost of engine, pump, pipe, pulleys, belt, and flume $700 

Contract cost of well and engine house (not built) 125 

Plant No. 14.— Plant No. 14, in the SE. I sec. 26, T. 13 S., R. 24 
E., owned by J. J. Gandy, was installed in June, 1910, and was 
tested May 10, 1911. Some difficulty was experienced in starting 
the engine on account of the poor quality of the fuel oil. Twice 
during the test the engine stopped completely, and each time about 
12 minutes were consumed in restarting. The engine is an 8-horse- 
power horizontal gasoline, of Witte make. The pump, an American 
No. 4 horizontal centrifugal, is placed in a pit 16 feet below the 
surface of the ground and is operated by a 6-inch rubber belt work- 
in a tunnel beltway at 45°. Six-inch suction and discharge pipes 
are used, the former being 18 feet long. 

The pit is 3 by 4 by 16 feet, with an 8-inch bored hole extending 
to a total depth of 40 feet. The water table stands at 18 feet. 
Neither the dug nor bored portions of the well have any curbing or 
casing. The tunnel beltway was made by boring with an auger at 
the desired inclination and enlarging. 



202 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

The pump discharges into a small reservoir, necessitating the use 
of the portable weir box for measuring the water. A plank plat- 
form resting on a temporary timber crib was improvised and served 
admirably as a support for the weir box. The water stood about a 
foot deep in the surrounding reservoir. It was difficult to measure 
the depth to water in the well when the pump was running. This 
was finally done, however, by gradually lowering a rubber tube and 
blowing into it constantly. When the tube enters the water, the 
vibrations caused by the bubbling can be easily felt. 

The 1.89 acre-inches of water pumped were used to irrigate 0.84 
acre of corn to a depth of 2.24 inches. 

Test of plant of J. J. Gandy, SE. i sec. 26, T. 13 S., R. 24 E. {plant No. 14). 

Duration. hours. . 3. 18 

Water pumped acre-inches. . 1. 89 

Maximum discharge measured gallons a minute . . 296 

Average discharge , do 268 

Water level drawn down feet. . 10. 5 

Discharge lift do . . . 19.0 

Average suction lift do 12.0 

Average total lift do. . . 31. 

Useful horsepower 2. 11 

Fuel used during test. gallons. . 3. 18 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do .47 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do 20. 2 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (practical 

efficiency) per cent. . 26. 4 

Cost: 

Engine $534 

Pump 90 

Belt 12 

Shed 40 

676 

Plant No. 15.— Plant No. 15, in the NE. J sec. 33, T. 12 S., R. 24 E., 
belonging to C. O. Miller, was installed in April, 1910, and tested 
October 25, 1910. A Peerless 8-horsepower upright gasoline engine 
operates a Byron Jackson No. 3 horizontal centrifugal pump by 
means of a 6-inch 4-ply rubber belt working at about 57° from the 
horizontal. The pulleys are 26 and 6 inches in diameter. Both 
suction and discharge pipes are 4 inches in diameter, the former 
having a foot valve and strainer. The discharge pipe delivers the 
water vertically into a short length of wooden flume 1 foot wide by 1 
foot deep. 

The dimensions of the well pit are 4 by 5 by 34 feet, the water 
level being 35 feet from the surface. In the bottom of the pit an 
8-inch bored hole, uncased, extends to a further depth of 18 feet. 



PUMPING PLANTS. 203 

The lower 2 feet of the bored hole were said to be caved, so that at 
the time of the test the depth of water in the well was 15 feet. 

The engine is well protected by a house 10 feet square, and the plant 
is operating quite successfully. During the test, 6.05 acre-inches of 
water were pumped and, after being conveyed about half a mile in an 
open ditch, were applied to 1.06 acres of alfalfa. The depth of irriga- 
tion, not allowing for loss, was therefore 5.7 inches. 

Test of 'plant of C. 0. Miller, NE. \ sec. 33, T. 12 8., R. 24 E. (plant No. 15). 

Duration hours. . 9. 95 

Water pumped acre-inches . . 6. 05 

Maximum discharge, measured gallons a minute . . 287 

Average discharge do 274 

Water level drawn down feet. . 7. 3 

Discharge lift do. . . 36. 

Average suction lift do. . . 8. 

Average total lift do . . . 44. 

Useful horsepower 3. 06 

Fuel used during test gallons. . 6. 05 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do 20 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do 12. 

Speed of engine revolutions a minute. . 300 

Speed of pump (computed) do 1, 300 

Ratio of useful horspower to rated horsepower of engine (practical 

efficiency) per cent. . 38. 2 

Cost: 

Engine $450 

Pump, suction, and foot valve (second hand) 75 

Well, belt and discharge pipe 100 



625 

Plant No. 16.— Plant No. 16, in the NE. J sec. 8, T. 13 S., R. 24 E., 
is owned by J. E. Casner. Originally a smaller plant was installed, 
consisting of a 4-horsepower engine and a 2-inch centrifugal pump, 
but this was replaced in May, 1911, by the present outfit. The test 
was made June 5, 1911. A Stover 10-horsepower horizontal gasoline 
engine, set upon a good concrete foundation, operates a Gould No. 4 
horizontal centrifugal pump by means of a 6-inch 4-ply rubber belt 
working on pulleys of 22-inch and 10-inch diameters at 62°. Suction 
and discharge pipes are of 6-inch standard size. A wooden flume, 
which ordinarily delivers the water into an earth reservoir 60 feet 
by 150 feet, was swung around during the test and delivered the water 
into the portable weir box. There is no valve on the piping. Prim- 
ing is done by plugging the end of the discharge pipe and exhausting 
the air from the centrifugal by a hand pump. 

The well pit is 4 by 5 by 28 feet, without curbing. The bored hole 
was formerly of 7-inch diameter and was tested with a 2-inch pump 



204 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

when it had been bored to a total depth of 67 feet. Twelve feet of 
suction pipe exhausted the water in 30 seconds. The hole was then 
continued 3 feet deeper and a coarse gravel was encountered, after 
which the same pump could lower the water level only 9 feet in a day's 
pumping. After several days pumping, the water level could be 
drawn down only 5 feet 2 inches. When the 4-inch pump was pur- 
chased, the 7-inch hole was reamed out to 9 inches. The water level 
was reached at 29 feet, but the first good water-bearing material was 
a coarse gravel at a depth of 70 feet. 

Test of plant of J. E. Casner, NE. \ sec. 8, T. 13 S., R. 24 E. {plant No. 16). 

Duration hours. . 5. 18 

Water pumped acre-inches. . 3. 50 

Average discharge gallons a minute. . 304 

Water level drawn down feet. . 9. 5 

Discharge lift do. . . 30. 8 

Average suction lift do. . . 11. 4 

Average total lift do . . . 42. 2 

Useful horspower 3. 24 

Fuel used during test gallons. . 7. 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do .42 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do 24. 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (practical 

efficiency) per cent. . 32. 4 

Cost: 

Engine |400 

Pump 100 

Well 100 

Piping 60 

Housing 60 

Belt 35 

Flume. 5 

760 

Plant No. 17.— Plant No. 17, on the ranch of C. E. Ellinwood, in 
the SE. J sec. 30, T. 13 S., R. 25 E., was installed in June, 1910, and 
was tested October 17, 1910. It consists of a Samson 12-horsepower 
horizontal gasoline engine and a Samson No. 4 horizontal centrifugal 
pump. The discharge pipe is 6 inches in diameter and the suction 
5 inches in diameter and 10 feet long. An 8-inch 4-ply rubber belt 
works at about 40° from horizontal, the engine and pump pulleys 
being 24 and 10 inches in diameter, respectively. The cylinder of 
the engine is connected with the pump suction and discharge by 
means of a 1-inch pipe which furnishes circulating water for the 
cooling system. 

The well pit was dug to a depth of 11 feet; then a 7-inch hole was 
bored 18 feet deeper. The total depth of the well is therefore 29 feet 
and at the time of the test the water level stood at 12.4 feet from the 



PUMPING PLANTS. 205 

surface. On account of caving sand the first stratum of water was 
cased off with a 12-inch square cement box, 6 feet deep. At a depth 
of about 21 feet a 3-foot stratum of sand and gravel was encountered. 
At first a perforated casing was tried, extending down through this 
sand and gravel into clay. The perforations did not yield enough 
water and the casing was withdrawn. The sand and gravel then caved, 
limiting the possible length of suction pipe to 10 feet. In the present 
undeveloped condition of the well, the plant can not be run at its 
full capacity. The results of the test, however, indicate that a yield 
of 400 gallons a minute can at present be maintained under average 
pumping conditions. Further development of the well would 
undoubtedly greatly increase this amount. 

Test of plant of C. E. Ellinwood, SE. £ sec. SO, T. 13 S., R. 25 E. {plant No. 17). 

Duration hours. . 3. 62 

Water pumped acre-inches . . 3. 24 

Maximum discharge measured gallons a minute . . 491 

Average discharge do 403 

Water level drawn down feet. . 6. 

Discharge lift do... 12.0 

Average suction lift do. . . 9. 

Average total lift do. . . 21. 

Useful horsepower 2. 16 

Fuel used during test gallons . . 6. 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do 0. 77 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do 22. 2 

Speed of engine revolutions a minute 235 to 273 

Speed of pump do 534 to 618 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (practical 

efficiency) do 18. 2 

Cost of plant, excluding well (about) $580 

Plant No. 18.— Plant No. 18, in the NW. i sec. 12, T. 13 S., R. 24 E., 
owned by F. M. Harris, was installed in June, 1910, and tested 
May 13, 1911. The plant consists of a Stover 10-horsepower vertical 
gasoline engine and an American No. 4 horizontal centrifugal pump. 
The belt is a 6-inch Gandy, with a half turn, working at 70° on 20- 
inch and 8-inch pulleys. The suction is of 6-inch black pipe, 12 feet 
long. The discharge pipe is of the same material, and has an elbow 
and one length of horizontal pipe, on the outer end of which is a flap 
valve. The water is delivered into a wooden distributing box, from 
which ditches lead in three directions. 

Water is here struck at 22 feet and the well is 43 feet deep. A 
pit 4 by 8 feet was dug to water level and an 8-inch hole bored 
21 feet deeper. The pit is curbed for the upper 8 feet only. The 
bored hole has no casing. The well was dug by a former occupant of 
the ranch and its log was not obtainable. 



206 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

The feed pump on the engine gave considerable trouble by not 
feeding sufficient fuel per stroke. Occasionally it had to be worked 
rapidly by hand. 

The water was measured on a 12-inch Cippoletti weir about 15 
feet from the point of discharge. 

Test of plant of F. M. Harris, NW. -} sec. 12, T. 15 S., R. 24 E. (plant No. 18). 

Duration hours. . 6. 75 

Water pumped acre-inches . . 6. 71 

Maximum discharge measured gallons a minute. . 457 

Average discharge do 447 

Water level drawn down feet . . 6. 6 

Discharge lift do . . . 26. 

Average suction lift do... 8. 3 

Average total lift do. . . 34. 3 

Useful horsepower 3. 87 

Fuel used during test gallons. . 8. 5 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do 0. 33 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do 15. 2 

Speed of engine revolutions per minute. . 312 

Speed of pump do 750 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (practi- 
cal efficiency) per cent.. 38. 7 

Cost of plant $625 

Plant No. 19.— Plant No. 19, in the NW. J sec. 11, T. 13 S., E. 24 E., 
is owned by J. W. Baker. It was installed in June, 1910, and was 
tested May 12, 1911. A Peerless 12-horsepower vertical gasoline 
engine with a 26-inch driving pulley is connected by means of an 
8-inch 4-ply rubber belt, inclined at about 60°, with an American 
No. 4 horizontal centrifugal pump having an 8-inch pulley. The 
water from the pump is elevated about 4 feet above the ground 
level and is delivered from a horizontal arm of the discharge pipe 
18 feet from the well. The 6-inch discharge pipe is of galvanized 
iron and contains a check valve just above the pump. There is an 
18-foot length of 6-inch suction pipe. The pump is primed by a 
hand pitcher pump. 

The well is dug 4 by 5 feet to 25 feet. The upper 8 feet are curbed 
with 1 by 12 inch boards, and the remaining 17 feet are uncurbed. 
The well is deepened to 44 feet by a 10-inch bored hole uncased. 
No water-bearing material was found above 44 feet, at which depth 
coarse sand and gravel were struck, some of the latter measuring 1 
inch. It was impossible to bring up this material with the boring 
apparatus used, and as enough water was yielded to supply the 
pump, no further development of the well was attempted. It is 
thought that the average yield of 461 gallons a minute obtained on the 
9^-hour run was practically all supplied from the bottom of the hole. 

To illustrate the irregularity of the valley fill, it may be mentioned 
that another well dug previously a few hundred feet away found no 
good water-bearing material in 70 feet of depth. 



PUMPING PLANTS. 207 

The water was measured over a 12-inch Cippoletti weir board set 
in the ditch near the well. The water level in the well, while pump- 
ing, was measured by noting the wetted portion of a narrow elon- 
gated weight which had been attached to the end of a steel tape and 
lowered into the well. In 35 minutes after starting, the water level 
had been lowered 10.8 feet. In the next nine hours the water fell at 
a fairly constant rate of about 2 inches per hour. 

Test of plant of J. W. Baker, NW. |- sec. 11, T. 18 S., R. 24 E. {plant No. 19). 

Duration hours. . 9. 5 

Water pumped acre-inches. . 9. 72 

Maximum discharge measured • gallons a minute . . 473 

Average discharge do 461 

Water level drawn down feet. . 12. 5 

Discharge lift - do . . . 28. 5 

Average suction lift do . . . 14. 2 

Average total lift do. . . 42. 7 

Useful horsepower 4. 97 

Fuel used during test gallons.. 16.1 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do 0. 34 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do 19. 9 

Speed of engine revolutions a minute. . 272 

Speed of pump do 850 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine (practi- 
cal efficiency) percent.. 41.4 

Cost: 

Engine $650 

Pump, belt, and piping 165 

Well 87 



902 

Plant No. 20.— Plant No. 20 (see PL XIV, B, p. 186), in the NE. J 
sec. 24, T. 13 S., R. 24 E., owned by H. L. Carnahan, was the largest 
irrigation outfit in the valley when the test was made — May 15, 
1911, about a month after the plant was installed. The equipment 
consists of a Hercules 30-horsepower horizontal gasoline engine with 
a 36-inch drive pulley; a 10-inch 5-ply stitched canvas belt; an 
American No. 8 horizontal centrifugal pump with a 16-inch pulley; 
a suction pipe 9 inches in diameter, 19 feet of its length being of 
standard oil-well casing, then 7 feet of galvanized iron riveted and 
soldered; and a 12-inch riveted discharge pipe discharging at ground 
level. A f-inch circulating pump supplies water to the cylinder for 
cooling. A vacuum gage is attached to the pump suction, the 
connecting pipe extending up to the surface of the ground for greater 
convenience in reading the gage. The pump is set as low as is 
possible without getting the belt in the water. There is no foot 
valve nor check valve, but the priming is easily done by throwing 



208 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

several gallons of water down the discharge pipe after the pump 
has attained full speed. 

The well is 235 feet deep. The first 20 feet were dug 5i by 7 feet 
and left uncurbed. The remaining 215 feet were drilled 10 inches in 
diameter, and the first 82 feet were cased with double stovepipe 
casing, thoroughly perforated with quarter-inch slots 10 to 12 inches 
long. Following is the driller's log: 

Driller's log of well of H. L. Carnahan, NE. \ sec. 24, T. 13 S., R. 24 E. 



Material. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Soil 

Sand and gravel, packed but not cemented 

Soil (water level at 20 feet) 

Sandy clay 

Sticky yellowish clay 1 

Fine quicksand, requiring casing 

Clay 

Coarse gravel, up to 1 inch in size 

Sandy clay 

Blue clay 

Coarse gravel, same as above 

Soft clay 

Gravel 

Yellowish clay 

Gravel 

Sticky blue clay 

Main water-bearing gravel, coarse and heaving. 

Clay 

Gravel 

Blue clay 



Feet. 
7 
4 
9 
3 
1 
3 
1 
4 
7 
1 
4 

16 
2 
9 
3 

11 

18 

114 

2 

16 



Feet. 
7 
11 
20 
23 
24 
27 
28 
32 
39 
40 
44 
60 
62 
71 
74 
85 
103 
217 
219 
235 



For measuring the water, a special Cippoletti weir board was 
made, with a crest of 42 inches. The vacuum gage was used for 
determining the suction lift. 

Test of plant of H. L. Carnahan, NE. \ sec. 24, T. 13 S., R. 24- E. 

Duration hours. . 6. 00 

Water pumped acre-inches. . 14. 4 

Maximum discharge measured gallons a minute. . 1, 443 

Average discharge do . . . 1, 080 

Water level drawn down feet. . 19 

Discharge lift do. . . 20. 

Average suction lift do . . . 18. 4 

Average total lift do . . . 38. 4 

Useful horsepower 10. 48 

Fuel used during test gallons. . 20. 5 

Fuel used per useful horsepower-hour do .33 

Fuel used per acre-foot of water pumped do 17. 1 

Speed of engine revolutions a minute. . 200 to 240 

Speed of pump do 484 to 527 

Ratio of useful horsepower to rated horsepower of engine 

(practical efficiency) per cent. . 34. 9 

Cost of plant and well (about) $2, 000 

Summary of tests. — The different elements of the plants tested, 
together with the results obtained, are summed up in the following 
table : 



PUMPING PLANTS. 



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PUMPING PLANTS. 211 

CONCLUSIONS. 

Character and depth of wells. — Of the plants tested, the wells at 
Nos. 9, 10, and 20 were machine drilled. No. 1 was dug and curbed 
all the way. The other 16 were bored below water level by hand, 
the average depth (excluding No. 11, which is largely filled with 
caved material) being 51 feet. 

Yield. — The plants in the above table are arranged and numbered 
according to the amount of water pumped, which ranged in the tests 
from an average of 69 gallons a minute for plant No. 1 to 1,080 gal- 
lons a minute for plant No. 20. In some tests the amount of water 
pumped varied greatly, as, for instance, at plant No. 20, which gave 
a maximum discharge of 1,450 gallons a minute at the start and a 
minimum of 915 gallons a minute when the speed of the pump became 
low because of slipping of the belt or improper regulation of the 
charge in the engine. The presence of air in the pump occasionally 
diminished the stream, and frequent trouble arose from belt slip- 
page. Notable steadiness was shown by plants Nos. 9 and 19. At 
plant No. 9 the maximum discharge was 163 gallons and the min- 
imum 154 gallons a minute, a range of only 6 per cent. At plant 
No. 19 the stream was even more constant, varying between 472 
and 457 gallons a minute, or only about 3 per cent. At both plants 
the pumps delivered their full rated capacity. 

Lift. — The depth to the water level at the plants tested is 10 to 
61 feet; the actual lift, which includes the lift above the ground and 
the lowering of the water below the normal water table, varied from 
18 to 73 feet, the mean value being about 36 feet. 

Drawdown. — The water level in the bored wells northwest from 
Willcox was drawn down an average of 1 foot for every 40 gallons a 
minute that was pumped. Thus, in that locality a well of moderate 
depth pumping 400 gallons of water a minute may be expected to 
lower the water level about 10 feet, and this fall, together with the 
height to which the water is to be raised above the ground level, 
should be added to the depth to water when estimating the probable 
lift for a proposed plant of 400-gallon capacity. The water in the 
deep well at plant No. 20, in the same locality, lowered a foot for 
each 56 gallons a minute pumped. 

On the east and west flanks of the barren flat each foot of draw- 
down corresponded to an average of about 10 gallons of water a 
minute pumped. In the southern part of the valley pumping for 
irrigation has not been tried very extensively as yet, and the three 
wells tested were so different that an average representative yield can 
not be given. In general, however, the water seems to be obtained 
from greater depths than in the northern part of the valley, requir- 
ing deeper and more expensive wells. Most of the water, however, 



212 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

is under hydrostatic pressure and rises in the wells, so that the actual 
lift is not excessive. 

Power. — All the plants tested were of the distillate centrifugal type, 
18 having horizontal and 2 vertical pumps. Many plunger pumps 
are in use throughout the valley, but they all deliver streams of water 
that are too small for much irrigation. Two steam plants have been 
installed, but at neither had sufficient water been developed in pro- 
portion to the capacity of the plant to justify comparison with 
gasoline plants. At present distillate is practically the only fuel to 
be considered, and will probably remain so until electric power is 
generated and distributed on a large scale. 

Efficiency. — Of the pumps tested, the rapid-speed type appeared 
to be the more efficient. The belt should be placed at a high inclina- 
tion and the pull should be on the lower side, thus giving a greater 
contact on both the upper and lower sides when there is any sag in 
the belt. The pulleys, besides being properly proportioned according 
to the speeds of engine and pump, should be of ample size. In any 
given plant there is a certain amount of power to be transmitted, 
and that power is the product of the strength of pull and the rapidity 
of motion of the belt; the greater the speed the less the necessary 
pull. A fast-running belt, therefore, can be of lighter construction 
and more flexible, will permit a greater sag, and will induce less fric- 
tion loss by reducing the lateral strain on the shaft bearings. 

The two causes which are preeminent in reducing the efficiency of 
plants tested are (1) the insufficient speed maintained by the pump 
and (2) the improper timing of the ignition in the engine. Every 
pump should have a center punch hole on the exposed end of its shaft, 
with ample room for free access to it; and every plant owner should 
have a revolution counter and a catalogue containing a speed table for 
his particular pump. The actual pumping lift should be measured 
and every precaution taken to insure the maintenance of the proper 
speed. The time of ignition may be noted by turning the flywheel 
of the engine slowly by hand. The spark should pass on the back 
stroke shortly before the piston reaches the dead-center point, pref- 
erably about one-ninth of a quarter revolution before the connecting 
rod and crank reach a horizontal position. 

Cost. — The cost of pumping plants per rated horsepower varied 
from $40 to $104, with an average of $66. This is exclusive of the 
cost of the well and necessary buildings. The average cost per useful 
horsepower was $290. If an efficiency of 40 per cent is obtained, as it 
should be, the cost would be reduced to $165 per useful horsepower. 
The average fuel cost per acre-foot of water pumped was $4.39, with 
distillate figured at 16 \ cents per gallon in the northern part of the 
valley and at 17 \ cents in the southern part. An addition of 5 per 
cent was made to the fuel cost as an allowance for losses of fuel by 



AGRICULTURE. 



213 



leakage, evaporation, etc. Cost of pumping must vary with the lift; 
the figures vary from 4.7 to 20.5 cents, with an average of 11. 2 cents 
as the cost of lifting each acre-foot 1 foot. The cost of lubricating 
oil will bring the average up to about 12 cents. As previously stated, 
irrigation has been practiced in the valley for only a very short time, 
and reliable data concerning fixed charges, such as those for repairs, 
attendance, and depreciation, can therefore not be given. 

The table below gives the usual percentage allowance made in the 
Southwest for fixed charges on gasoline-engine centrifugal-pump 
plants. The localities represented are the Billito and Santa Cruz val- 
leys near Tucson, Ariz., the Pomona district in southern California, 
and scattered plants at Deming, Las Cruces, and Estancia, N. Mex. 

Percentage allowance for fixed charges on pumping plants. 





Arizona.** 


Southern 
California. 6 


New 
Mexico, c 




10 
8 
1 
4 


12 to 15 
6 

1 


11 


Interest 


g 


Taxes 


1 


Maintenance and repairs 








Total 


23 


20 


20 







a Bull. Arizona Agr. Exp. Sta., No. 64, p. 209. 

fc.Bull. Office Exp. Sta., No. 181, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 51. 

cBull. New Mexico Agr. Exp. Sta., No. 73, p. 15. 

The short time during which irrigation has been practiced in Sulphur 
Spring Valley also affects estimates of cost through lack of informa- 
tion as to the duty of water. Possibly not more than half an acre- 
foot of pumped water may be required for some crops when dry- 
farming and supplementary irrigation methods are employed. On 
the other hand, 3^ acre-feet of water will probably be needed for the 
most successful alfalfa irrigation. The average cost of fuel and 
lubricating oil for these two extreme cases is found to be 6 and 42 
cents, respectively, for each foot that the supply for one acre is lifted; 
with a total actual lift of 40 feet the cost for these items would be 
$2.40 and $16.80, respectively, per acre per annum. 



214 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

AGRICULTURE. > 

By R. H. Forbes. 
EARLY HISTORY. 

Prehistoric people have left behind them in Sulphur Spring Valley 
evidences of a primitive agriculture. The remains of ditches and of 
metates for grinding corn indicate the cultivation of the soil and the 
utilization of its products by ancient tribes. Many of these remains 
occur in localities where the present water supply is extremely scant 
and unadapted to agricultural operations. It is therefore not 
unlikely that, in accordance with the views of modern meteorologists, 
there was a period unknown centuries ago when the average annual 
rainfall of the region was considerably greater than it is now, making 
possible the irrigation and cultivation of tracts for which there is now 
no known water supply. 

At the time of the Gadsden purchase, when American occupation of 
the region began, Sulphur Spring Valley was without agriculture, 
except, perhaps, a little of the crudest nature at the camps of the 
Apache Indians in the Chiricahua Mountains. The first American 
settlers in Sulphur Spring Valley were cattlemen who took little 
interest in cultural operations except as these were tributary to the 
cattle industry. 

Among the earliest and most progressive of these cattlemen was 
H. C. Hooker, who first reached Sulphur Spring Valley with a large 
herd of cattle in 1867, and who in 1872 established the Sierra Bonita 
ranch, 22 miles northwest of Willcox. 

Mr. Hooker availed himself of the flood waters in his vicinity for 
the growing of corn, sorghum, and Johnson grass, and for the better- 
ment of his range. By means of diversion ditches so placed as to 
spread the run-off from the adjacent slopes over the grass country in 
the vicinity, he improved thousands of acres of grass land. Follow- 
ing flood-water distribution of this character new areas of perennial 
sacaton grass, of great value in time of drought, were established, and 
aided him greatly in maintaining his herds at certain seasons of the 
year. In the bottom of the valley he impounded water by means of 
transverse embankments. From the storm-water reservoirs thus 
created he irrigated fields of sorghum and corn, and when such reser- 
voirs were emptied of their store of water he planted sorghum in the 
wet soil remaining in their bottoms. In this way considerable quan- 
tities of forage were produced which were preserved and utilized in 
times of scarcity. In time of extreme need he would plow his Johnson 
grass fields, turning up the succulent roots and stolons that were 
then eagerly consumed by famishing cattle, which were thus carried 
over a period of scarcity. 

1 The data on dry farming in Sulphur Spring Valley used in this report were furnished by R. W. 
Clothier, of the Arizona Experiment Station staff. 



AGRICULTURE. 215 

Aside from such operations as these practically no attempt at 
farming was made in Sulphur Spring Valley until very recently. 
The abundant rains of 1905, in conjunction with an increased demand 
for desirable farming land, led to the homesteading of large areas of 
land in Sulphur Spring Valley which had before been utilized exclu- 
sively as grazing range. Dry-farming theories of cultivation also 
had much to do with this movement, as it is popularly supposed 
that by means of dry-farming methods even the soils of the semi- 
arid Southwest may be made to grow successful crops on rainfall 
only. This stage of agriculture in Sulphur Spring Valley and in 
Arizona has only just begun. Some experience has been gained 
and some ideas have been developed with reference to the possi- 
bilities of agriculture by dry-farming and other methods of agri- 
culture in this region. 

SOILS. 

As in all the large valleys of the Southwest, the soils of Sulphur 
Spring Valley vary from coarse gravels on the higher and steeper 
slopes to fine and dense clays at lower elevations where the gradients 
are slight. The coarse, sandy, and gravelly soils at the higher eleva- 
tions are as yet of little importance agriculturally because the ground- 
water supply of the valley lies so deeply beneath them as to be agri- 
culturally unavailable under present conditions. Most of the heavier 
clay soils, lying for the most part in the valley bottoms, are also in 
large part unavailable because they are so charged with alkali salts 
as to make crop production impossible. The intermediate grades of 
soil lying between the coarse gravels of the higher slopes and the 
dense clays of the valley bottoms are those to which recourse must 
in the main be had for agricultural results. 

The gradients of these intermediate portions of the valley are for 
the most part well suited to irrigation, varying from 8 to 40 feet per 
mile. The general surface of the valley is but little eroded, although 
it has been heavily grazed for the last 40 years. Probably most of 
Sulphur Spring Valley was originally grass covered. In the grass- 
covered tracts it costs but little to prepare land for a crop, but 
mesquite lands, although usually of excellent quality, require expen- 
sive clearing before farming operations are possible. The expense is 
in considerable part offset by the value of the posts secured, but even 
with this consideration is often heavy. 

As in all semiarid regions, the soils of Sulphur Spring Valley 
are deficient in humus and nitrogen except where grass roots and 
decayed vegetation have formed a few surface inches of soil rich in 
vegetable matter. Limy hardpan, locally known as caliche, is not 
developed to the extent found at lower elevations in Arizona; but 
considerable areas of the valley are underlain by whitish deposits of' 
soft, limy material, which may be regarded as an incipient hardpan 
formation. 



216 WATER RESOURCES OP SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

The soils of Sulphur Spring Valley are very generally charged 
with sodium carbonate, commonly known as black alkali. This fact 
is related to the granitic character of the surrounding mountains — 
granite weathering to form, among other tilings, sodium carbonate. 
In many places the amount of tins substance is sufficient to preclude 
successful agriculture. Black alkali is directly corrosive to vegeta- 
tion, and it also destroys the tilth of a soil by deflocculating it, causing 
it to become plastic, and consequently difficult to irrigate or aerate 
properly. Even when present in very small amount, therefore, black 
alkali is very undesirable in an agricultural soil, one-tenth of 1 per 
cent being commonly stated as the limit endurable by crop plants. 

Fortunately there are gypsum deposits in Sulphur Spring Valley, 
and gypsum is a chemical antidote for carbonate of soda, reacting 
with it to form harmless calcium carbonate and less harmful sodium 
sulphate. These deposits of gypsum are now developed about 5 
miles east of Douglas and can be delivered on board the cars at 
Douglas at $1.30 a ton. It is therefore quite possible to neutralize 
small percentages of black alkali in a soil and doubtless, in time to 
come, as economic conditions permit, these deposits will be used for 
this purpose in the region. Aside from soils containing excessive 
and soils containing curable amounts of black alkali, there are, how- 
ever, large areas which are sufficiently free from soluble salts to be 
available for general farming operations. 

Small areas of white alkali (sulphate and chloride of sodium) are 
also found in the valley; higher percentages of these are permissible 
in the soils. 

WATER. 

With reference to its use in agriculture, the water supply of Sul- 
phur Spring Valley may be divided into direct rainfall, flood- water 
run-off, and ground water. The rainfall, which ranges from as little 
as 6 to as much as 22 inches a year at agricultural levels within the 
valley (see p. 89), is sometimes, as in 1905, adequate for the pro- 
duction of crops by ordinary methods of farming, and at other times, 
as in 1900, is entirely inadequate. In average years, however, the 
summer rains, from July 1 to October 1, are adequate for the produc- 
tion of certain crops. (See pp. 78-91.) The winter rainfall is much 
less valuable, but by suitable methods of conservation may be made 
to contribute to crop results. As elsewhere in southern Arizona, the 
summer rainfall of the valley is patchy in character, the amount and 
distribution being often much more satisfactory in certain localities 
than in others. The winter rains, however, have the advantage of 
being uniformly distributed throughout the region in which they 
occur. 

The flood-water run-off, resulting from heavy rains in the moun- 
tains adjacent to the valley, is often of great benefit to the subjacent 



AGRICULTURE. 217 

country. These flood waters, issuing from mountain canyons, are 
naturally widely distributed over the valley lands below. Their dis- 
tribution, especially before the country was overgrazed, was facili- 
tated by the gentle gradients and by the dense growth of grasses 
with which the valley was covered. Flood waters received from 
the mountains were spread out in wide sheets and their progress 
obstructed by the heavy growth, so that they were rapidly absorbed 
in the soil and there utilized by growing vegetation. Similarly, by 
means of ditches, this flood water may be intercepted and carried 
onto cultivated land for future use in growing various cultivated 
crops. This form of water supply, however, like rainfall, is inter- 
mittent and uncertain and requires to be supplemented by some 
more certain supply in order to be made useful. 

The underground waters of Sulphur Spring Valley, where within 
economical reach of pumping operations, constitute a supplementary 
supply of great future importance. These waters, however, being 
derived probably in the main from flood-water run-off from the moun- 
tains, are, unlike the rains and the surface floods, more or less charged 
with salts absorbed from the soil through which they move. As is 
to be expected from the character of these salts, the alkali contained 
in the ground waters is to a considerable extent black in character, 
about two-thirds of the samples examined being of this nature. 
About one-third, however, contain calcium sulphate, which is, chem- 
ically, an antidote for black alkali. It is interesting to note that in 
some places pumped water supplies of these two characters could 
probably be combined in such proportions as to render harmless the 
black alkali contained. It is of interest also to note that, in the main, 
the saltiest waters occur only at the lowest levels in connection with 
the heaviest and physically less desirable types of soil, whereas at 
intermediate and higher levels the quality of the water supply is 
sufficiently good to be available for irrigation without resulting 
damage to the soil. 

AGRICULTURAL METHODS. 

Several more or less successful farming methods have been adapted 
to the water supply described above. Among these are so-called 
dry farming; flood-water farming; farming by irrigation with 
pumped water; combinations of dry farming and flood-water farm- 
ing, dry farming and supplementary irrigation with pumped water, 
and farming with the ranging of cattle where the land is yet 
unoccupied. 

DRY FARMING. 

Dry farming in Sulphur Spring Valley is uncertain, because of 
the varying rainfall from year to year and because of the possible bad 
distribution of a rainfall which, if timely, would be adequate for the 
production of crops. As ordinarily in dry-farmed regions, dry farm- 



218 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

ing consists, essentially, in the storage of moisture in the soil and its 
subsequent utilization by crops. In Sulphur Spring Valley, how- 
ever, the irregularity of the rainfall may easily interfere with a care- 
fully planned program of operations; and the winds, the exceedingly 
dry air, and the heat of summer, all result in excessive evaporation 
of moisture and necessitate unusual vigilance and care in maintain- 
ing the soil mulch to conserve the rainfall even temporarily. Good 
equipment and efficient organization are consequently necessary for 
carrying on farming operations punctually and in the proper way. 
In spite of these difficulties, however, part crops of corn, sorghum, 
milo maize, and beans were grown on the dry farm of the Arizona 
Experiment Station southwest of McNeal (see PI. I, in pocket), 
during the somewhat unfavorable seasons of 1909 and 1910, on 
rainfall only, conserved by dry-farming methods of cultivation. 
Beans produced an encouraging crop, and considerable yields of 
corn and sorghum were also obtained. In 1910 by purely dry- 
farming methods the following crops were grown: 

Crops grown on the dry farm of the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, southwest 

of McNeal, in 1910. 



Crop. 


Soil. 


Stand. 


Yield per 
acre. 


Damage 
by birds. 


Corrected 
yield if 
undam- 
aged. 




Heavy soil, fallowed pre- 
ceding year, not pre- 
viously cropped. 

Lighter soil, fallowed 
preceding year,cropped 

2 preceding years. 
Lighter soil, cropped 

3 preceding years. 
Medium soil, fallowed 

preceding year, not 
previously cropped. 

Lighter soil, fallowed pre- 
ceding year, cropped 
2 preceding years. 

do 


Good 


3.18 tons 

2.56 tons 

1.26 tons 

2.05 tons 


Per cent. 
None. 

None. 

None. 


Bushels. 


Do 


do 




Do 






do 




Blue Aztec corn 

Yellow Aztec corn . . . 


do 

Good 


8.9 bushels.. 

7.3 bushels.. 
6.1 bushels.. 

370 pounds . . 
232 pounds.. 


15 

20 
15 

None. 
None. 


10.4 
9.1 


White flint corn 


Medium soil, cropped 
3 preceding years. 

Heavy soil, fallowed pre- 
ceding year, not previ- 
ously cropped. 

Lighter soil, fallowed 
preceding year, cropped 
2 preceding years. 




7.2 


Yellow Teparv beans 


Medium 




Do 


Less than half stand . 









Kanchers in the valley have also produced promising crops of 
beans, sorghum, corn, broom corn, milo, and Kafir. These preliminary 
results indicate that dry farming alone has a distinct but limited utility 
in the region, which, however, can undoubtedly be greatly increased 
by the use of supplementary water. (See p. 221.) 

In this connection it is worthy of notice that the French in North 
Africa are producing economic crops of corn, wheat, wine, grasses, 
sorghum, and olives on lands receiving from 10 to 16 inches of rain- 



AGKICULTUKE. 



219 



fall a year, largely as a result of thorough cultural methods, and 
the choice of varieties suited to semiarid conditions. Recent crop 
statistics from Algeria are as follows: 

Crops raised in Algeria by dry -farming methods. 



Crop grown. 


Yield per acre. 


Total production. 


Wheat 


10 bushels 


24,500,000 bushels. 
175,000,000 gallons. 


Wine 


1,000 gallons 

8 bushels 




58,000,000 bushels. 






8,000,000 head; 1,200,000 






exported. 



FLOOD-WATER FARMING. 

Flood-water farming, which is immediately consequent upon rain- 
fall, is practiced to some extent in the southwestern part of the 
United States and adjacent portions of Mexico. The Papago Indians 
especially, are very skillful in diverting storm waters at advantageous 
points by crude ditches which lead the water upon subjacent tracts 
of level land. These Indians, at the beginning of the summer rains, 
make preparation for planting and cultivating their summer crops 
by breaking the fallow ground left after harvesting preceding crops. 
In the loose soil thus prepared the rainfall and the diverted storm 
waters are accumulated. In it corn, beans, melons, pumpkins, 
squashes, martynias, and sorghum mature rapidly under the in- 
fluence of the warm summer season, the moisture in the soil, and 
usually the continued rains and floods of the summer. The Papago 
Indians are particularly successful in the cultivation of their own 
quick-growing, drought-resistant varieties of corn and beans and 
rarely fail to obtain satisfactory returns from their operations. 

Winter crops of wheat and barley are usually less satisfactory, for 
the winter storms are less adequate and the winter run-off is less 
abundant than the storms and run-off of summer. In some winters, 
however, fairly satisfactory crops of wheat are matured by the Indians. 

Following the example of agricultural tribes of the Southwest the 
Mexicans and to some extent the Americans also are utilizing storm- 
water run-off, supplemented in many places with additional irrigating 
supplies. By combining the use of flood waters with the thorough 
cultivation incident to dry-farming methods, considerable, though 
not always dependable, returns are to be realized. 

In some situations it is also possible to supplement rainfall and 
flood waters with stored water impounded behind low and inex- 
pensive embankments thrown up at advantageous points across 
washes and swales leading from the mountains whence comes the 
major portion of the water supply. Such storage is practiced by 
the Indian tribes, but thus far is used by them exclusively for the 



220 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA, 

watering of stock and not for the irrigation of crops. There is no 
reason, however, why, with higher embankments and larger reser- 
voirs, such storage should not be increased sufficiently to be available 
for irrigation. To a small extent, in fact, American farmers in 
Arizona are already saving small stores of water from summer storms 
and utilizing it to bring to maturity quick-growing crops of beans, 
melons, and corn. 

In many parts of Sulphur Spring Valley, especially in the border- 
land between the foothills and the open valley, numerous sites are 
available for storing small bodies of water and will doubtless be 
developed in course of time. 

SUPPLEMENTARY IRRIGATION WITH PUMPED WATER. 

Unlike rain and flood waters, which are intermittent and uncertain, 
the ground waters which may be economically reached under certain 
areas of Sulphur Spring Valley are permanent and dependable and 
may be used to supplement the cheaper supplies, thus assuring crop 
returns to the farmer. 

Stored ground waters of Sulphur Spring Valley, indeed, will take 
the place of the reservoir waters available in certain other agricul- 
tural valleys of southern Arizona. In some localities where water 
of desirable quality comes very near the surface it may be found 
possible to develop and use ground waters according to ordinary 
methods of irrigation. Where pumping from any depth is required, 
however, the cost of this form of water supply renders desirable 
the use of as little pumped water as possible. To be most effective, 
it should be applied only when the starting or saving of a crop renders 
its use especially advantageous or necessary. The summer growing 
season in the valley, for instance, beginning with the summer rains 
in July and ending with the early frosts, is sometimes too short to 
mature satisfactorily corn, sorghum, kafir corn, and certain other 
forage and vegetable crops. These crops can be started well in 
advance of the summer rains by running pumped water down the 
planting furrows, then cultivating thoroughly to conserve moisture, 
and sowing seed in the moist soil. Crops thus planted will come on 
rapidly while the soil moisture lasts and will then be taken up by 
the summer rains beginning about the 1st of July. If the rains 
are timely and thorough cultivation is employed after each rain, no 
further irrigation will be necessary and fairly satisfactory crops will 
result. 

In the winter growing season, also, fall crops of wheat and barley 
may be started by similar supplemental irrigation and brought up 
in time to utilize winter rainfall and be well advanced toward maturity 
by April. The scant rainfall of the spring months, however, is 
usually insufficient to mature grain crops, and a second supplemental 
irrigation is necessary. The use of supplemental pumped water is 



AGRICULTUKE. 



221 



much less practicable with winter than with summer crops in Sulphur 
Spring Valley because of the greater amount of supplementary water 
required. 

The use of supplemental pumped water is, however, not limited to 
the exigencies of planting and maturing a crop. By maintaining 
surface tilth in the form of a deep mulch according to dry-farming 
principles of agriculture, pumped water, like rainfall or storm-water 
run-off, may for a season be stored and conserved in the soil. At the 
dry farm near McNeal such storage has been made and utilized with 
conspicuously beneficial effects on crops six months after pumping, 
thus making it practicable to utilize the output of small plants for 
soil-water storage. To do this the ground should be irrigated through 
furrows as rapidly as the pumping plant will supply the water. 
These furrows should then be cultivated level and the mulch main- 
tained as in dry farming. Beginning, say on the 1st of January, 
the farmer can thus store water in his fields for four months, until 
danger of late frosts is over, and can then plant his crops upon 
accumulated soil moisture to be supplemented by summer rains, and the 
crop can usually be brought to completion without further help from 
the pumping plant. The experiments near McNeal have shown that 
about 4 inches deep of water, or about one-tenth the amount re- 
quired under ordinary irrigation in southern Arizona, applied in this 
way, is sufficient to assure a crop. Moreover, the continuous use of 
a pumping plant through several months of the year is more econom- 
ical, considering investment, interest, and depreciation, than is the 
temporary use of such a plant only at critical times in the growth 
of the crop. Used continuously in this manner a pumping plant may 
be made to carry the crops, not on a few acres only, but on as many 
acres as can be supplied by the plant with water a few inches deep 
during several months of the year. Following is a table derived from 
Prof. R. W. Clothier's work at the dry farm of the experiment sta- 
tion in 1910, showing results by dry-farming methods only and by 
dry-farming methods with supplemental pumped water. 

Dry-farm crops, with and without supplemental pumped water, grown at McNeal. 





Crop. 




Without supplemental irriga- 
tion. 


With supplemental irri- 
gation. 




Forage. 


Grain. 


Forage. 


Grain. 


Sorghum 




pounds.. 

. . . bushels . . 


3,188 


27 

5.14 

4.0 

387 


5,476 


370 
11.4 


Milo 


do.... 






32.6 


Tepary beans 


pounds.. 






761 









The limitations under which pumping plants for supplementary 
water supply may be used are mainly those of cost of operation as 
compared with the value of resulting marketable products. The 



222 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

practice of the region is yet so new that no authentic figures are 
available. A number of profitable gardens, however, in several 
parts of the valley adjacent to mining markets, have been main- 
tained with the help of pumps operated by windmills and by gaso- 
line engines. These engines are usually operated without special 
skill and without the best of management in the use of water. In 
course of time, by means of cooperative plants organized on the prin- 
ciple of centralized economical production and advantageous dis- 
tribution of electrically transmitted power to individual farms, sup- 
plementary pumped water should be developed in large amount in 
Sulphur Spring Valley. 

AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES. 

The area within which dry-farming methods supplemented by 
pumped water are possible under present conditions is limited to 
those intermediate elevations of the valley where good soil is under- 
lain by ground water within economical pumping distance. The 
area of such lands is probably not less than 200,000 acres. This 
leaves approximately 700,000 acres of land of good quality which is 
capable of supporting an abundant growth of native grasses but 
under which the water lies at too great a depth for economical pump- 
ing as yet. It is not at all unlikely, therefore, that it will later be found 
advantageous to use these lands for the grazing of cattle, to which 
the valley was formerly exclusively devoted, in combination with 
farming operations in the more favorable areas where dry farming 
with supplemental pumped water can be undertaken with a fair 
degree of success. This cultivable portion of the valley should be 
made to act as a balance wheel for the grazing areas. By means of 
rainfall, flood waters, and, when necessary, supplemental pumped 
water, crops of sorghum, Kafir corn, milo maize, and quick-growing 
varieties of Indian corn, and even alfalfa, may be grown and cured 
for use as forage in times of drought when the open range fails. Such 
supplies of forage will serve to tide over range animals, especially 
during the dry months of April, May, and June, when feed is most 
likely to be deficient and when, in some years, many cattle have 
starved. The losses from starvation, sometimes reaching 50 per cent 
or more, may in this manner, to a considerable extent, be guarded 
against. 

By such a plan not only is productiveness secured for the areas 
actually cultivated, but utility is gained for large additional grazing 
areas. 

In this connection, it is not at all unlikely that silos may come into 
use as a feature of the agriculture of the region. During the winter 
and spring seasons, when frosts and dry weather curtail the supply 



AGKICULTUKE. 223 

of green feed, a supply of fresh forage would be of great value to 
stock-growing industries within the valley. In French North Africa, 
in a semiarid region similar to southern Arizona, silos are success- 
fully employed to preserve forage for use at times when green mate- 
rial is not available. Both dairying and the fattening of cattle are 
practiced successfully with the aid of these silos. Sulphur Spring 
Valley, cost permitting, would be peculiarly benefited by the instal- 
lation of this feature in the agricultural practice of the region, inas- 
much as corn, sorghum, and other forages, which may be grown 
during the summer rainy season, are of double value in connection 
with the output of the adjacent range when fed during the following 
winter and spring. 

It is interesting, in this connection, to note the manner in which 
the Papago stockmen of extreme southwestern Arizona adapt them- 
selves to the arid conditions which there obtain. About July 1, at 
the beginning of the summer rainy season, when surface flood waters 
may be impounded in the valley bottom lands, these people, with 
their cattle, horses, and agricultural implements, move from the 
mountains to the valleys and there remain, grazing their cattle on 
summer grasses and planting quick-growing crops on soil soaked with 
flood waters and occasionally moistened with rain. In the fall, as 
the rains fail and the supplies of water impounded for domestic use 
disappear, the Indians migrate back to their villages in the adjacent 
foothills, where their cattle range through the winter on the summer 
growth of wild-hay forage and are watered from their owner's 
wells. In this way, spending half the year in the mountains and 
half in the valley bottoms these Indians live successfully in a region 
where white men, with methods unadapted thereto, have repeatedly 
failed to establish themselves. The peculiar merit of the Indian 
method is that their cattle are shifted from mountains to valleys and 
from valleys to mountains each year, so that at no time are their 
ranges seriously overgrazed, as necessarily happens with the fixed 
watering places and grazing grounds commonly maintained by 
American stockmen. If it were practicable, such a system, or some 
modification of it, by which purely grazing ranges should be used in 
combination with cultivated areas, would be found well adapted to 
Sulphur Spring Valley. 

The question of crops peculiarly adapted to the region is also most 
important. Quick-growing and drought-resistant varieties of corn, 
milo maize, sorghum, millets, beans, and other summer crops are espe- 
cially desirable. Quick growth is necessary to insure maturity before 
the frosts of late September, and drought resistance is essential at 
times when the rains and the stored soil waters fail. Some native 
varieties of corn and beans are especially adapted to the region. 



224 WATER RESOURCES OF SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY, ARIZONA. 

The small-eared, soft Indian corn of the aboriginal tribes produces 
well under conditions which would prohibit the growth of many 
eastern varieties, and the Indian beans of the region are especially- 
valuable because of their ability to produce with a small and uncer- 
tain water supply. These beans have succeeded relatively well 
during the last two years at the experimental dry farm near McNeal 
and will probably become a feature of the agriculture of the region,- 
as they bid fair to produce remunerative crops and also to aid in 
maintaining the fertility of soils depending in large part on rainfall 
and pumped ground waters. 

The introduction and planting of drought-resistant trees is also 
important in Sulphur Spring Valley. The semiarid, subtropical 
parts of the world are the most promising regions in which trees of 
this character are to be sought. The tamarisks of Asia are examples 
of introduced trees which will undoubtedly prove valuable. 

SUMMARY. 

The foregoing discussion of the agricultural resources of Sulphur 
Spring Valley may be summed up as follows: 

Extensive areas consist of agricultural soils, under a portion of 
which water lies within economical pumping distance. Adjacent 
valley and foothills contain much grazing country that can not at 
present be economically watered by pumps, and that is valuable 
chiefly in connection with some reliable source of forage. Water 
supplies are derived from rainfall, storm water run-off, and ground 
waters. The valley has a summer growing season beginning with 
the rains of July and terminating with the frosts of late September, 
and a winter growing season for grains beginning' in the fall and carry- 
ing through the frosty months. A small but increasing list of crop 
plants have shown themselves adapted to the region; among them 
are quick-growing drought-resistant varieties of Indian corn and beans, 
sorghum, milo maize, Kafir corn, pumpkins, and squashes. 

Several methods of culture have been or may be developed under 
prevailing conditions. Of these, dry farming by means of rainfall 
only is somewhat uncertain because of the variations in rainfall from 
year to year; flood-water farming, like dry farming with direct rain- 
fall, is also uncertain because of variations in precipitation; dry 
farming supplemented with pumped water supply is more certain 
than either dry farming or flood-water farming. The preceding cul- 
tural methods may be combined advantageously with the grazing 
of cattle on adjacent ranges. 



INDEX, 



A. Page. 

Adams, G. I., on gypsum 71 

Agriculture, extent of 16 

methods of 217-222 

outline of 214-217 

possibilities of 222-224 

Algeria, crops of 219, 223 

Alkali, concentration of 160 

determinations of, in soils 172-181 

distribution of 162-166, 711 

map showing 163 

effect of 160-162, 169 

investigation of, method of 162 

kinds of 134, 161 

distribution of 164-165 

leaching of 167-168 

neutralization of 170 

occurrence and character of 66, 172-181 

relation of, to drainage 165-166 

to irrigation 167-170 

to vegetation 166, 183-184 

See also Sodium; Potassium. 

Alkali flats , borings on , sections showing 67 

description of 33-34 

position of 26-27, 34 

views of 33, 42 

A kaline earths. See Calcium; Magnesium. 

Alkali zone, vegetation on 183-184 

Allaire's ranch, rainfall at 78, 79, 83, 86, 87, 89 

rainfall at, distribution of, figures show- 
ing 84, 87,88,90,91 

water table at 93, 102 

well at 118 

water of, quality of 156, 169 

Allen, C. M., well of 119 

well of, water of, quality of 108, 157 

Alluvial fans. See Fans. 

Altitude, effect of, on rainfall 85 

effect of, on rainfall, figure showing 86 

Altitudes, range of 9 

Antisell, Thomas, on Sulphur Spring Val- 
ley 12, 18, 44 

Apaches, wars with 12-13 

Arivaipa Valley, location of 9 

piracy by 27-28 

water table in 101 

Arizona, physiographic provinces of 20 

physiographic provinces of, map showing. 10 
pumping, costs in 213 

Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, 

crops of 218,221 

investigation by 20 

Artesian conditions, description of 122-132 

requirements of 128-130 

figure showing 129 

82209°— wsp 320—13 15 



Page. 

Arzberger, Fred, pumping plant of 191, 209 

well of 1.18 

water of, quality of 156 

Ash Creek, water table on 105, 107, 109 

Ash Creek Ridge, geology of 46 

structure of 33 

Axial draws, positions of 26 

B. 

Baker, J. "VV., pumping plant of 206-207, 210 

Barren zone, extent of 184 

view of 33 

See also Flat, alkali. 

Beaches, influence of, on settlement 36-37 

materials of 63 

position of 34-36 

views of 36 

Benson, flowing wells near 127 

geology at and near 61 

section at, figure showing 61 

Bibliography of region 44-45 

Bicarbonates, occurrence of, in ground water . 140 
occurrence of, distribution of, map show- 
ing 141 

Bisbee, growth of 14-15 

production of 15 

rainfall at 78, 79, 83, 87, 89 

distribution of 85 

figures showing 84, 87, 88 

structure at, figure showing 130 

water beneath 19, 116 

water supply of 115 

Blake, W. P., on San Pedro Valley 60-61, 72 

Boilers, water for 152-153 

Bolson, definition of 21 

Bonita, rainfall at 79 

water table at 104 

Bonita Draw, ground water on 103, 105 

Brophy, James, pumping plant of 197-198, 209 

well of 120,126 

record of 197 

water of, quality of 158 

Brummet, E., well of 118, 123 

Brush and grass zone, extent of 182 

Busenbark ranch, ground water at 112 

Buttes, development of 32-33 

distribution of 31-32 

effect of, on ground water 99 

origin of 32 

views of 32 

C. 
Calcium, occurrence of, in ground water 133, 142-143 
occurrence of, distribution of, map show- 
ing 141 

225 



226 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Calcium salts, effect of, in water 150-151, 160 

Caliche, character of 65 

occurrence of 55, 65-66 

origin of 65-66 

view of 60 

California, pumping costs in 213 

Calvin, Samuel, on ice epochs 76 

Cambrian rocks, deposition of 50 

occurrence and character of 45 

Carbonates, occurrence of, in ground water. . . 140 
occurrence of, distribution of, map show- 
ing 141 

Carboniferous limestones, deposition of 50 

occurrence of 45-46 

Carnahan, H. L., pumping plant of 207-208, 210 

pumping plant of, view of 186 

well of, record of 208 

Casner, J. E ., pumping plant of 203-204, 210 

wellof 117 

Cattle, raising of 16 

Chiricahua Mountains, description of 22 

fan at base of 25 

geology of 46, 47, 112 

rainfall in 80, 85 

rock basins of, water in 112-113 

slopes of, ground water of 107-109 

ground water of, quality of. 134, 136, 143, 145 

water from 96-97 

slope of, figure showing 98 

Chlorine, deposition of 168-169 

occurrence of, in ground water 136-138 

distribution of, map showing 137 

Christianson's ranch, ground water on Ill 

Circle I ranch, wells at and near, water of, 

quality of 136, 138 

Climate, character of 9-10 

Clothier, R. W., work of 221 

Cochise, alkali near 165 

rainfall at 78, 80, 83, 87, 89 

distribution of, figures showing. 84, 87, 90, 91 

water table near 96 

wells at and near 123, 124 

water of, quality of 136, 138, 144, 147 

Columnar section, plate showing 44 

Cook, C. H., well of, water of, quality of 140, 

142, 143, 147, 155, 166 

Copper, production of 15 

Copper industry, growth of 15-16 

Copper Queen Co., wells of 55, 59, 125, 126 

Courtland, rainfall at 80 

water table at 110 

wells near 114-115 

Cowan, William, wells of 110-111 

Craig, A . L., well of, water of, quality of. 143, 149, 155 

Craig, Greer, well of, water of, quality of 149 

Craig, Stanley, pumping plant of 196-197, 209 

well of, record of 197 

water of, quality of 149 

Cretaceous rocks, deposition of 51 

occurrence and character of 46 

Crevices, water in 115-116 

Crops, nature of 218, 223-224 

Croton Springs, deposits at 63, 67 

Indian relics near 17 

water table at 96, 100 

Cupp, J. B., well of 123. 132 



~D. Page. 

Davidson, R. EL, well of 110 

Dean, G. H., well of 110, 119 

Deformation, extent of 48-49 

Devonian limestone, deposition of 50 

occurrence of 45^6 

Ditmars, J. W., pumping plant of 200, 209 

well of, record of 200 

Divides, formation of 25-26 

Doan, Frank, well of 110 

well of, water of, quality of 138, 143, 159 

Domestic use, water for, mineralization and. 149-151 

Dorsey, C. W., on alkali 161 

Dos Cabezas Mountains, description of 21-22 

fan of 25 

geology of 46, 47 

ground water near, quality of 136, 143, 144 

rock basins of, water in 112 

structure of 129 

water from 96, 97 

Dos Cabezos, ground water at 112 

ground water at, figure showing 112 

rainfall at 80 

views near 112 

Double Rod well, water of 109 

Douglas, geology at and near 53, 68, 70, 130 

growth of 15-16 

gypsum near 70-71 

lava near 68, 70 

rainfall at 78, 80, 83-84, 87,89 

distribution of, figures showing 84, 

88,89,90,91 

section near, figures showing 52, 98 

wells at and near 125-126 

water from, quality of 136, 138, 

142, 144, 145, 151, 152, 153, 159 

Dragoon, rainfall at 78, 81 

water table at 93 

Dragoon Mountains, description of 23 

geology of 46, 47-48 

rock basins of, water in 114-115 

slopes of, ground water of 110-111 

ground water of, quality of 136, 143-145 

structure in 129 

water from 96, 97, 98 

Dragoon Summit, rainfall at 78, 81 

Drainage, description of 21-23, 26 

relation of, to minerals in soil 165-166 

Drainage area, extent of 9 

Drawdown in wells, data on 209-210, 211-212 

Draws, shallow water on 103-104 

shallow water on, figure showing 104 

Dry farming, attempts at 215,218-219,224 

land adapted for 222 

Dumble, E. T., work of 44,46 



Edwards, A. M., fossils determined by 72 

Ellinwood, C. E., pumping plant of... 204-205,210 

Ellison, W. E., wells of 110, 124 

Erosion, occurrence and extent of 27-30, 

50,51,73-74 

Explorations, early, records of 11-13 

F. 

Fans, construction of 21, 23-24, 26-27. 54-55 

erosion of 29-30 

profile of, figure showing 24 

of 24-25 



INDEX. 



227 



Page. 
Fivemile Creek, ground water on 107-108, 113 

ground water on, figure showing 106 

Flat. See Alkali flat. 

Floods, relation of, to vegetation 186, 210-217 

use of, in farming 217, 219-220, 223, 224 

Flowing wells, distribution of 122-132 

distribution of, map showing In pocket. 

prospects for 128-132 

Foaming, cause of 152 

Forbes, R . H . , on agriculture 214-224 

on alkali 161-162 

Forest zone, extent of 182 

Forrest, buttes near 33 

geology near 46 

water at 115 

Four Bar ranch, water table near 94-96 

wells near 125 

Fort Grant, rainfall at 78, SI, 83, 87, 89 

rainfall at, distribution of 84-85 

distribution of, figures showing 84, 87 

Fross, V. H., pumping plant of 191-193, 209 

well of 118 

section of 192 

Fuel, cost of 189, 209-210, 213 

G. 

Gaiiuro Mountains, description of 22-23 

geology in 47, 48, 68, 144 

ground water of, quality of 144 

rock basins of, water in 114 

Gandy, J. J., pumping plant of 201-202, 210 

Gannett, Henry, on timber line 85 

Gardner, C. A., wells of 110 

Geography, outline of 9-10 

Geologic history, account of 49-52, 71-78 

Geology, columnar section showing 44 

description of 44-78 

map showing In pocket. 

Gila conglomerate, age of 72, 74 

occurrence and character of 56-57 

Gila Valley, geology in 53 

Gilbert, G. K., exploration by 13, 44 

on Basin Range 71 

on Gila conglomerate 56, 74 

Giragi, George, pumping plant of 190-191, 209 

well of, water of, quality of 144, 159 

Glacial epochs, correlatives of 76-77 

Grain, grinding of, by Indians 16-17 

Grass and brush zone, extent of 182 

Grazing industry, growth of 16 

land for 222 

Ground water, analyses of 153-159 

circulation of 99-101, 148 

effect of, on minerals in ground water . 148- 
149, 165-166 

map showing In pocket. 

deposits by 65-68 

depth to 94-96, 117-121 

map showing In pocket. 

disposal of 99-101 

evaporation of 100 

main body of, occurrence and level of 92-102 

minerals dissolved in 132-133 

distribution of, maps showing 135, 

137, 139, 141 



Page. 
Ground water, occurrence and level of, inves- 
tigation of 91-92 

occurrence of, in crevices in rocks 115-110 

in rock basins 111-115 

on slopes 102-111 

quality of 132-159 

investigation of 133-134 

map showing 135 

relation of, to rock trough 92 

to vegetation 186-187, 217 

source of 96-99 

uses of, relation of mineralization to 149-153 

See also "Water table. 

Gypsum, neutralization of alkali by 170, 216 

occurrence of 216 

H. 

Hado, geology near ■ 58 

Halderman, Frank, well of 118, 123 

well of, water of, quality of 156 

Hamilton, L. J., well of, water of, quality of. 140, 

143, 157 
Hardness, determination of 134 

effects of 151-152 

occurrence of 142-143 

distribution of, map showing 141 

Harris, F. M., pumping plant of 205-206, 210 

High Creek, water table on 105, 107 

Hills, molding of, by wind 38-41 

relation of, to flat 41-42 

History, outline of H 

Holderman, S. R., wells of 108, 127 

wells of, water of, quantity of 157 

Hooker, H. C, ranch of, ground water at, 

quality of 134, 140, 143, 154 

ranch of, view on 186 

water table at and near 101 

settlement by 214 

Hookers Draw, course of 26 

water on, quality of 154 

water table on 94, 105 

Huntington, Ellsworth, on climatic changes. 76 

I. 

Igneous rocks, occurrence and character of. . . 47-48 

Indians, relation of, to water supplies 16-18 

relics of 16-17, 214 

view of 16 

war with 11-13 

Industries, development of 15-16 

development of, relation of, to water 18-20 

Irrigation, alkali and, relations of 167-170 

development of 19, 214, 220-222 

investigation of 20 

water for 153, 160-171 

J. 

Jenkins, W.M.,wellof 124 

J. H. ranch, ground water at, quality of 134 

water table at 93,95, 101 

Johnson, water supply of 114 

K. 

Keeth, A. E., pumping plant of 201, 209 

Kelton, F. C, on pumping plants 187-213 

work of 20,92,116 



228 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Kelton Junction, geology near 53 

well at 126 

Knolls, construction of 42-43, 68 

section of, figure showing 43 

view of 42 

L. 

Lagoons, deposits in 63 

Lake, ancient, age of 74-77 

beaches of 34-36, 75 

bed of 37-38 

deposits in, view of 42 

position and size of 34 

relation of, to wind 41-42 

Lake beds, buried, correlation of 62 

description of 57-62 

Lake deposits, description of 62-63 

Sec aho Beaches; Lagoons. 

Lake epochs, succession of 74-77 

Laundry, water for 151-152 

Lava beds, deposition of 77 

occurrence and character of 68-70 

views of 68 

Leaching, effect of irrigation in 167-168 

Leslie Creek, geology along 53 

ground water on 109, 113 

figure showing 113 

quality of 138 

Levees, occurrence and character of 31 

Lift of pumps, details of 189, 209-210, 211 

Light, water table at 93 

Limestone, solution of, by ground water. . . 144-146 

submergence of, by lava 68 

Lindgren, Waldemar, cited 57 

Literature, list of 44-45 

Little Dragoon Mountains, description of 23 

fan from 25 

geology of 46,47 

rock basins of, water in 114 

structure in 129 

water of, quality of 143, 144-145 

Location of valley 9 

map showing 10 

Loew, Oscar, on Sulphur Spring Valley 13, 60 

(\ M. 

McAllister, A. I., pumping plant of 195-196, 209 

McGlone, C. T., wells of 118, 124 

McHenry, R. F., pumping plant of 193, 209 

McHerron, M. K., well of, water of, quality 

of 138, 154 

MacKay, Robert, well of 114 

McNeal, crops at and near 218, 221 

well at, water of, quality of 138 

Maddox, William, well of 110 

well of, water of, quality of 159 

Magnesium, occurrence of, in ground water. 133, 

142-143 
occurrence of, distribution of, map show- 
ing 141 

Map showing geology and vegetation.. In pocket. 

showing quality of ground water 135, 

137,139,141 

showing water data In pocket . 

Marble, occurrence of 46 

Market, supplies for 16 

Martin, H. C, well of, water of, quality 

of 136, 142, 149, 155 



Page. 
Mayhew, O. EL, well of, water of, quality of. . 136 

Meinzer, O. E., work of 20 

Mesquite zone, extent of 183 

view of 182 

Miller, C. O., pumping plant of 202-203, 210 

wells of H7 

Minerals, solution of, in ground water 132-133 

solution of, distribution of, maps show- 
ing 135,137,139,141 

See also Total solids. 

Mining camps, lack of water at 18 

Mortars, Indian, survivals of 16 

view of 16 

Mountains, description of 20-23 

structure of 20 

Mud Spring, relations of 114 

view ol 112 

Mule Mountains, description of 23 

geology of 46, 47-48 

rainfall on. See Bisbee. 

rock basins of, water in 115 

slopes of, ground water of ill 

ground water of, quality of... 136,143,145 

structure of 129-130 

water from 99 

Mural limestone, deposition of 51 

occurrence and character of 46 

Murphy, W. A., well of 109 

N. 

New Mexico, pumping plants in 213 

North basin, alkali in 163-164 

beach in, view of 36 

depth to water in 95, 96 

erosion in 27-28 

flat in, view of 33 

flowing wells in 122-123 

prospects for 132 

ground water i n, movement of 148 

location of 9, 26 

valley fill in 57-59 

water of, quality of 140, 148 

water table in 95, 96, 100 

wells in 122-124 

O. 

Oak Creek, water table on 105, 107 

Ordovician rocks, occurrence of 50 

O. T. ranch, water at, quality of 155 

water table at and near 93, 95 

wells at 117, 122 

P. 
Paleozoic quartzites and limestones, deposi- 
tion of 50 

occurrence and character of. 4.5-46 

Papago Indians, irrigation by 219, 223 

Parry, C. C, on San Bernardino and Sulphur 

Spring Valleys 11, 44 

Pearce, geology at 53 

water table at 93, 99 

Pearce divide, structure of 25 

Pedregosa Mountains, description of 22 

Perilla Range, description of 22 

geology of 47 

rock basins of, water in 113-114 

slopes of, ground water in 110 



INDEX. 



229 



Page. 

Physiographic provinces, description of 20 

location of, map showing 10 

Physiography, description of 20-43 

Pinaleno Mountains, description of 21 

fan of 25 

geology of 47, 144 

ground water of, quality of 144 

rainfall in 85 

rock basins of, water in 111-112 

water from 96-97 

Pinery Creek, ground water along 1 07 

Population, statistics of 15 

Potassium, occurrence of, in ground water. 133, 142 
occurrence of, distribution of, map show- 
ing 141 

Pratt well, water of 109. 

Pre-Cambrian igneous rocks, occurrence and 

character of 48 

Pre-Cambrian schist, deposition of 49 

occurrence and character of 45, 49 

Precipitation. See Rainfall. 

Production of copper, statistics of 15-16 

Pumps, cost of 209-210 

efficiency of 212 

make of 209-210 

Pumping plants, cost of 209-210, 212-213 

descriptions of 190-213 

distribution of 187-188 

map showing In pocket. 

draw down by 209-210, 211-212 

fuel for 189, 209-210, 213 

cost of 209-210 

investigation of, scope of 188-190 

irrigation by 220-222, 224 

lift of 189, 209-210, 211 

pumps for 188, 209-210, 212 

tests of 188-208 

summary of 209-213 

view of 186 

Q. 

Quaternary geology, description of 52-71 

history of 71-78 

R. 

Railroads, construction of 13, 15 

Bainfall, amount of 9-10, 216 

annual fluctuations in 87-91 

figures showing 88, 90 

effect of, on ground water 101-102 

geographic distribution of 83-85 

figure showing 84 

records of 78-83 

relation of, to altitude 85 

to altitude, figure showing 86 

to vegetation 185-186 

seasonal distribution of 85-87 

figures showing 87, 88 

Rainfall stations, distribution of, map show- 
ing In pocket. 

records at. See Rainfall. 

Ranches, establishment of 13-14 

Rand, A. D., wells of 104 

Ransome, F. L., on Bisbee district . . . 14-15, 44, 116 

on Gila conglomerate 56-57 

on valley fill 72 



Page. 

Ray quadrangle, valley fill in 62 

Recent geologic history, summation of 78 

Robb, S. J., wells of . 126 

Rock, flows from 128-130 

flows from, figure showing 129 

Rock basins, water in 111-115 

wells in 115 

Rock Creek, ground water on 108 

Rock formations, relation of, to minerals in 

ground water 144-146 

Rock trough, formation of 71-72 

relation of, to ground water 92 

Roger, Paul, well of 123 

well of, water of, quality of 144, 156 

Ross, W. H., work of 20, 133, 153, 171 

Russellville, rainfall at 78, 81 

S. 

Sagebrush area, extent of 183 

view of 182 

Salt, common, deposition of 168-169 

Salt bush, view of 33 

Sampson, R. E., well of, water of, quality of. 138 

San Bernardino Valley, description of 9, 28-29 

flowing wells in 127 

lava in 69-70 

valley fill in 60 

San Pedro Valley, flowing wells in 127 

valley fill in 60-62 

San Simon, flowing wells at 128 

geology at and near 59-60 

sections at, figure showing 59, 128 

San Simon tuff, analysis of 60 

occurrence and character of 60 

San Simon Valley, flowing wells in 128 

section in, figures showing 60, 128 

valley fill in 59-60 

Scale, formation of 152-153 

Schofield, W. H., well of 124 

Scott Hills, view in 32 

Servoss, alkali near 170 

Sevier Lake, Utah, position of 27 

Sierra Bonita ranch, divide near, structure of. 25-26 

establishment of 13, 214 

See Hooker's ranch. 

Silos, use of 223 

Silver Creek, water at 113 

Slopes, erosion on 29-30 

figures showing 29, 30 

ground water on 102-111 

relation of, to water table 103 

figure showing 106 

Smelting, growth of 15-16 

Sodium, occurrence of, in ground water 133, 142 

occurrence of, distribution of, map show- 
ing 141 

Sodium carbonate, effect of, on water.. 149-150,170 

Sodium chloride, effect of, on water 149-150, 

168-169 

Sodium sulphate, effect of, on water 150, 170 

Soils, alkali in 172-181,216 

analyses of 171-181 

character of 215-216 

deposition of 54 

relation of, to vegetation 184-185 

See also Alkali. 



230 



INDEX. 



Pnge. 

Soldiers Hole, flat near 34 

flat near, alkali on 164, 165 

evaporation on 99 

geology near 53 

history of 125 

water table at 93, 94, 96 

wells near 120, 125 

water of, quality of 136, 138, 144 

Solids. See Total solids. 

South basin, alkali in 164 

depth to water in 96 

erosion in 28-29 

flowing wells in 125-126 

prospects for 131-132 

location of 9, 26 

wells of 125-127 

Springs, topographic features due to 42-43 

topographic features due to, view of 42 

Stamp mills, erection of 18 

Steam making, water for 152-153 

Stratums, water bearing. See Water-bearing 
stratums. 

Stream deposits, age of 72-74 

character of 53-56 

correlation of 56-57 

distribution and thickness 52-53 

Structure, character of 48-49 

Sulphates, occurrence of, in ground water — 138 
occurrence of, distribution of, map show- 
ing 139 

Sulphides, occurrence and character of 66-67 

position of, figure showing 67 

Sulphur Springs, deposits near 67 

water table at 93, 95, 101 

Swisshelm Mountains, buttes near 32 

description of 22 

fan of 25 

geology of 46, 47 

rock basins of, water in 113 

slopes of, ground water of 109 

ground water of, quality of 134, 

136, 138, 143, 145 

structure in 129 

view in 32 

T. 

Taylor Canyon, water table in 105 

Temperature, range of 10 

relation of, to vegetation 185 

Toilet, water for 151-152 

Tombstone, establishment of 14 

rainfall at 78, 82, 87 

water beneath 18-19, 115-116 

Total solids, occurrence of, in ground water . . 134 
occurrence of, distribution of, map show- 
ing 135 

relation of, to use of water 149-153 

to rocks 144-146 

to underground circulation 148-149 

to water level 146-148 

Turkey Creek, ground water on, quality of. . . 134 

vegetation on 186, 187 

water table on 103-104, 108-109 

figures showing 104, 106 

Turvey , George, pumping plant of 198-199, 209 



Valley fill, artesian conditions in 130-132 

figure showing 131 

characterof 53-56 

deposition of 52 

flows from 130-132 

sections of, plates showing 52, 60 

See also Stream deposits; Lake beds; 
Lake deposits; Wind deposits; 
Ground-water deposits. 

Van Meter farm, well at 120, 125 

well at, water of, quality of 157 

Vegetation, extent of 10 

extent of, map showing In pocket. 

relation of, to alkali 160-162, 166, 183-184 

to geography 184-187 

to water 182-183, 185-186 

zones of 182 

Vertrees, L. W., pumping plant of 194-195, 209 

Volcanism, epochs of 77 

occurrence of 51 

W. 

Walnut ranch, rainfall at 82 

Ward, D . B . , fossils determined by 72 

Water, sources of 18-20, 185-186, 21S 

storage of 219-220 

Water, pumped, irrigation by 220-222 

See also Ground water. 

Watercourses, position of 26 

Water supplies, protection of 151 

relation of, to Indians 16-18 

to industrial development 18-19 

Water table, changing of. 170 

continuity of 55 

depth to 94-96, 117-121 

map showing In pocket. 

relation of, to disposal of ground water . . 99-101 
to high-level water, figure showing . . . 106 

to minerals in ground water 146- 

148, 165-166 

to rainfall 101-102 

to source of supply 96-99 

figures showing 98 

to surface 94-96 

slope of 92-94 

variations in 101-102 

Watson, D. H., wells of 110 

Weir box, portable, description of 189-190 

views of 188 

Wells, depth to water in 117-121, 189, 209-210 

pumps for 188, 209-21O 

sinking of 19 

cost of 188 

type of 188 

yield of 189-190, 209-210, 211 

Wells, deep, nonflowing, distribution of 123- 

125, 126-127 

Wells, flowing, occurrence of 122-132 

West well, water of, quality of 143, 157 

water table at 93, 95 

Whitener , Walter, pumping plant of 194, 209 

well of 118 

Whitewater Draw, alkali on 164, 165 

course of 26 

depth to, water near 95, 96, 99, 109, 125 

description of 28, 29 



INDEX. 



231 



Page. 

Whitewater Draw, erosion in, view of 16 

evaporation on 100 

ground water on, quality of 134, 138, 144 

rainfall at 82 

vegetation on 186 

water table at 108 

Willcox, alkali near 164, 166, 170, 171 

establishment of 13-14 

flowing wells at 132 

geology at 53, 57-58 

ground water at and near 148 

quality of 134, 136, 

138, 140, 143, 144, 145, 151, 152, 153 

rainfall at 78, 83-84, 86, 87, 89, 91 

distribution of, figures showing . 84, 88, 90, 91 

water table at 93, 95 

wells at and near 122 

"Winchester Mountains, description of 22-23 

geology of 47, 144 



Page. 

Winchester Mountains, ground water from. . 96-97 

ground water from, quality of 144 

rock basins of, water in 114 

Wind, deposits by 64-65 

deposits by, views of 33,42,68 

erosion by, view showing 33 

prevailing direction of 39-41 

diagrams showing 39, 40 

relation of, to lake 41-42 

topographic features due to 38-42 

Wood farm, water table on 105 

Wright, H. E., pumping plant of 199-200, 209 

well of 119 

water of, quality of 157 

Y. 

Yucca, grove of, view of 182 

growth of 186 



O 




MAP OF 

SULPHUR SPRING VALLEY 

ARIZONA 



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LRBJaU 



